Relations between Sunnis and the various branches of Shiʿism have long been shaped by political history, doctrinal differences, and the polemical literature of different eras. One claim that appears in some medieval Sunni heresiographical texts, and is sometimes repeated in polemical contexts today, is that Sunnis consider all Shiʿites to be disbelievers (kuffār) except the Zaydīs. While such a statement reflects certain strands of polemical writing, it does not represent the mainstream Sunni legal or theological position, nor does it account for the diversity of Shiʿi communities or the complexity of Sunni jurisprudence on sectarian classification.
This article examines the origins of the claim, the actual Sunni legal stance, and the historical nuances that shaped perceptions of the Zaydīs and other Shiʿi groups.
1. Why Such a Claim Arose in Some Polemical Traditions
To understand the origins of the assertion, one must look at the polemical atmosphere of the late Umayyad, Abbasid, and post-Seljuk eras, especially during times of political and military conflict between Sunni rulers and certain Shiʿi groups. Heresiographers such as al-Baghdādī, Ibn Ḥazm, and Ibn Taymiyya wrote during periods of intense rivalry between Sunni powers and political movements associated with Twelver, Ismāʿīlī, or extremist (ghulāt) Shiʿism.
Three main factors contributed to harsh categorizations:
a. Political Conflict
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The Fatimid Caliphate, an Ismāʿīlī Shiʿi state, rivaled the Abbasids.
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The Qarmaṭians attacked pilgrimage caravans and even sacked Mecca in 930 CE.
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The Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs (“Assassins”) were in violent conflict with Seljuks and Zengids.
Political enmity often spilled into theological rhetoric.
b. Ghulāt (extremist) sects
Historical Shiʿism included groups that believed in:
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the divinity of Imams,
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reincarnation,
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prophetic status for figures after Muhammad.
Sunni scholars universally classified such sects as outside Islam. Over time, polemicists often blurred distinctions between these groups and mainstream Shiʿism.
c. Simplification in Heresiographical Literature
Works like al-Farq bayn al-Firaq or al-Milal wa al-Niḥal tended to categorize large religious communities into rigid boxes, often overstating doctrinal differences and underestimating internal diversity.
These conditions created space for the claim that only the relatively moderate Zaydīs were not considered disbelievers.
2. Zaydīs as Seen in Sunni Tradition
Zaydīs—predominant in Yemen—are often described by Sunni scholars as the closest Shiʿi group to Sunnism. This perception rests on several factors:
a. Theology
Zaydī theology resembles Muʿtazilism, which—though opposed by many Sunnis—remains within the fold of Islam according to Sunni legal consensus.
b. View of the Imamate
Zaydīs:
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accept the leadership of any qualified descendant of Ḥasan or Ḥusayn who rises against injustice,
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do not endorse the infallibility or divine designation of Imams,
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do not anathematize Abu Bakr and ʿUmar.
This last point is key: Sunni jurists generally accepted that reviling the Companions is sinful, but not automatically disbelief unless it includes explicit accusations that undermine the fundamentals of Islam.
c. Ritual and Law
Zaydī fiqh is close to Sunni jurisprudence, especially the Hanafī school in matters of analogy and legal theory.
For these reasons, many Sunni legal manuals describe the Zaydīs as a “non-Sunni but Muslim” sect.
3. Mainstream Sunni Legal Position on Shiʿites
Contrary to polemical claims, mainstream Sunni jurisprudence does not classify all Shiʿites as disbelievers. The legal schools (madhāhib) differentiate between:
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Twelvers (Jaʿfarīs)
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Ismāʿīlīs (including Fatimid and Nizārī branches)
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Zaydīs
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Ghulāt extremists
Only the last category—those who attributed divinity to Imams or rejected core pillars of Islam—were unanimously classified as outside the fold.
a. Hanafī Scholars
Abū Ḥanīfa and later Hanafīs generally held that:
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Shiʿites are Muslims as long as they do not deny established essentials of Islam.
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Twelvers are valid marriage partners.
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Their slaughtered meat is permissible.
b. Mālikī Scholars
While critical, Mālikīs did not declare Twelvers or Zaydīs as disbelievers. Imām Mālik reportedly said that cursing the Companions was innovation (bidʿa), not kufr.
c. Shāfiʿī and Ḥanbalī Scholars
Some Hanbalī and Shāfiʿī polemicists held harsher views, especially regarding those who cursed Abu Bakr and ʿUmar. Yet even they generally distinguished:
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Shiʿi revilers (fussāq, sinners)
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Ghulāt extremists (heretics or unbelievers).
Ibn Taymiyya—sometimes cited as evidence of Sunni takfīr of Shiʿites—explicitly wrote that most Twelver Shiʿites are not disbelievers, even though he harshly criticized their doctrines.
d. The Consensus of Sunni Legal Texts
Across all four madhāhib:
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Twelvers are Muslims, albeit holding mistaken or innovated beliefs.
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Zaydīs are Muslims, closest to Sunnism.
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Ismāʿīlīs vary—some branches (Fatimid) are regarded as heretical but still within Islam; extremist branches fall outside.
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Ghulāt groups are outside Islam due to beliefs contradicting monotheism.
Thus, the sweeping claim that Sunnis view all Shiʿites as disbelievers is historically incorrect.
4. Why the “Zaydīs Are the Exception” Narrative Persisted
Several factors explain why some writers—especially medieval Sunnis—highlighted the Zaydīs as the “only acceptable” Shiʿi group:
a. Political Alliances
Zaydī Imams often allied with Sunni powers against common enemies, creating pragmatic respect across sectarian lines.
b. Mutual Recognition
Because Zaydīs accepted:
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the legitimacy of Abu Bakr and ʿUmar (even if conditionally),
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the fallibility of Imams,
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mainstream Islamic ritual law,
Sunni scholars found fewer theological objections to them.
c. Contrast with Rival Shiʿi Powers
During periods when Sunni states fought the Fatimids or Nizārīs, praising the Zaydīs implicitly criticized more radical opponents.
d. The “Spectrum” of Shiʿism
Heresiographers often arranged Shiʿi groups on a spectrum:
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Zaydīs = moderate
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Twelvers = innovators
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Ismāʿīlīs = heretical
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Ghulāt = unbelievers
This gradient was more descriptive than doctrinal.
5. Contemporary Sunni Scholarship
Modern Sunni institutions (e.g., al-Azhar) classify:
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Shiʿites as Muslims,
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marriage between Sunnis and Shiʿites as valid,
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and Twelver fiqh as a recognized school in Islamic jurisprudence.
Contemporary fatwas emphasize unity and reject sectarian takfīr.
The claim that “Sunnis consider all Shiʿites unbelievers except the Zaydīs” is therefore:
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historically rooted in polemics,
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not representing Sunni theological orthodoxy,
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and not reflective of contemporary Sunni jurisprudence.
Conclusion
The assertion that Sunnis consider all Shiʿites to be disbelievers except the Zaydīs reflects a polemical tradition, not the established, nuanced view of Sunni legal and theological scholarship. While Zaydīs were historically seen as the closest Shiʿi group to Sunnism, mainstream Sunni jurists recognized Twelvers and most Ismāʿīlīs as Muslims, even while strongly disagreeing with their doctrines.
The real picture is far more complex, shaped by political conflict, sectarian rhetoric, and the evolution of both Sunni and Shiʿi thought over the centuries. Understanding these nuances is essential for moving beyond simplistic narratives and appreciating the diverse theological landscape of the Islamic tradition.
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