The political and religious landscape of the Middle East underwent profound changes with the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the revolutionary leader of the movement, became the Supreme Leader of Iran, steering the country into an era of Islamic governance based on his interpretation of Shia Islam. While Khomeini's regime fundamentally transformed Iran and reshaped its foreign policy, his ambitions extended beyond the borders of his country. One of the more contentious elements of Khomeini's vision was his desire to assert influence over the Muslim holy cities of Makkah and Madinah, located in Saudi Arabia. This ambition to dominate the two sacred cities has been a subject of significant debate among political analysts, religious scholars, and historians.
The Role of Makkah and Madinah in Islamic Thought
Makkah and Madinah are among the most important cities in the Islamic world. Makkah is home to the Kaaba, the holiest site in Islam, located within the Masjid al-Haram mosque. It is the direction toward which Muslims face during their daily prayers and the destination of the Hajj pilgrimage, which is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Madinah, the second holiest city, houses the mosque of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Masjid al-Nabawi, and is where the Prophet is buried. As such, both cities are central to Islamic worship, theology, and identity.
While the Saudi royal family governs the cities, they hold a significant position within the Sunni sect of Islam. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia controls the cities as custodians of the two holy mosques, a title they claim through their royal lineage and their deep connection with Sunni religious practices. However, for Khomeini and many within the Shia community, especially those who view the Sunni-Shia schism as not just theological but political, the Saudi monarchy’s control over these cities was seen as problematic.
Khomeini's Vision for Islam
Ayatollah Khomeini’s revolution in Iran was not merely a political shift but an ideological one. His vision of an "Islamic Republic" was based on the concept of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Jurisprudent), a system in which a senior religious figure, in this case, Khomeini himself, held ultimate political authority. Khomeini’s interpretation of Islam rejected secularism and promoted an idealized version of an Islamic government that, he believed, should spread throughout the Muslim world.
From the outset, Khomeini sought to unify the Muslim ummah (community) under the banner of his Islamic Republic. This unification, however, was not based on respect for the diverse traditions within Islam but on the idea of centralizing the Muslim world under his brand of Shia Islamic governance. Khomeini believed that the Shia clerical leadership had a unique role in guiding the Muslim community, and he viewed himself as the natural leader of the Muslim ummah.
His vision included a more prominent role for Shia Islam, which had been marginalized within the Sunni-majority Muslim world, and the establishment of a new Islamic order that would challenge the power structures of Sunni-led countries, including Saudi Arabia. His stance on Makkah and Madinah, as symbols of this broader struggle, can be traced back to his belief that the Saudi monarchy was a tool of Western imperialism and an obstacle to his revolutionary goals.
The Conflict Between Shia and Sunni Islam
The geopolitical and religious tension between Shia and Sunni Islam significantly impacted Khomeini’s views on Makkah and Madinah. For centuries, the divide between these two branches of Islam has shaped political and religious interactions. Khomeini saw the Saudi monarchy’s strong ties to the United States and its influence in the Sunni world as part of a broader conspiracy against the Shia community, which he believed was centered in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The Saudi monarchy, on the other hand, viewed itself as the guardian of Islam’s holiest sites, with an obligation to protect the integrity and sanctity of Makkah and Madinah. For Khomeini, however, this role was not legitimate because it was rooted in the Saudi monarchy's collaboration with Western powers. Khomeini’s ideology rejected the idea that a Sunni dynasty should control the holy cities, seeing it as a product of Western imperialism that kept the Muslim world divided.
One key aspect of Khomeini’s agenda was his goal of establishing a more significant Shia presence in these sacred cities, which he believed were critical to the future of the Islamic world. In this context, Khomeini sought to undermine Saudi control by positioning his revolution as the legitimate force for a truly Islamic governance system, one that transcended sectarian divides and united Muslims under Shia leadership.
Khomeini’s Attempts to Influence Makkah and Madinah
While Khomeini’s revolution primarily focused on reshaping Iran’s political system, his foreign policy was equally bold. His rhetoric and actions often challenged Saudi Arabia's authority, particularly in relation to the holy cities.
The 1979 Iranian Hajj Incident: One of the earliest signs of Khomeini’s ambition to exert influence over Makkah and Madinah occurred during the Hajj pilgrimage in 1979, the year of his revolution. Following his rise to power, Khomeini’s government sent strong political signals by supporting the Iranian pilgrims who staged protests during the Hajj. These protests, largely aimed at the Shah’s regime and its ties to the West, were also a way for Khomeini to highlight his dissatisfaction with Saudi Arabia’s handling of the pilgrimage. In the aftermath of the revolution, Khomeini’s rhetoric began to target the Saudi monarchy, accusing it of being a puppet of the West and failing to protect Islam’s sanctity.
Support for the 1987 Makkah Massacre: Tensions between Iran and Saudi Arabia escalated in the years following the revolution. In 1987, a violent confrontation broke out between Iranian pilgrims and Saudi security forces during the Hajj. The incident, which resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Iranian pilgrims, further strained relations between the two nations. Khomeini’s support for the Iranian pilgrims and his denunciation of Saudi Arabia for its handling of the situation contributed to the increasing animosity between the two countries.
The Propaganda War: Khomeini also used propaganda to criticize the Saudi regime’s stewardship of the holy cities. His government aimed to portray the Saudis as illegitimate rulers, accusing them of neglecting the true principles of Islam. He called for a reimagining of the Islamic world, one where the leadership of Shia clerics played a more prominent role in guiding the faithful.
Khomeini’s Long-Term Vision
Khomeini’s broader vision for Makkah and Madinah went beyond his criticism of the Saudi monarchy. He sought to position Iran as the political and spiritual leader of the Muslim world. To that end, he encouraged the creation of an Islamic bloc of nations, unified under a vision of Islamic governance based on Shia principles. Khomeini’s rhetoric positioned the Saudis as usurpers of the true Islamic cause, framing them as protectors of corrupt practices rather than defenders of Islam’s most sacred sites.
Moreover, Khomeini’s agenda to dominate Makkah and Madinah was a manifestation of his larger goal to reshape the Muslim world under a new, Islamic political order led by the Shia. His aspirations were not just territorial or political but symbolic, seeking to turn these holy cities into powerful symbols of Shia religious dominance in the Islamic world.
Conclusion
Ayatollah Khomeini’s desire to dominate Makkah and Madinah was not merely about gaining control of sacred religious sites; it was part of a broader ideological struggle. By challenging the Saudi monarchy’s control over the holy cities, Khomeini sought to advance a revolutionary vision of Islam, one that placed Shia clerical leadership at the forefront of global Islam. His rhetoric, actions, and support for Iranian pilgrims were all part of his strategy to undermine Saudi Arabia’s legitimacy and assert Iran’s position as the true leader of the Muslim ummah. This ambition ultimately created significant tension between Iran and Saudi Arabia, tensions that have shaped the geopolitical dynamics of the region for decades.
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