Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini is one of the most influential religious and political figures in modern Islamic history. Revered by supporters and reviled by critics, Khomeini’s leadership fundamentally reshaped the landscape of Shiite Islam (Shiism), not only in Iran but across the Muslim world. His blend of theology and revolutionary politics gave Shiism a new global identity—transforming it from a historically marginalized sect into a powerful force with geopolitical reach.
Early Life and Clerical Rise
Born in 1902 in Khomein, a small town in central Iran, Ruhollah Khomeini was educated in the seminaries of Arak and Qom. A devout follower of Twelver Shiism, he became a leading marja' taqlid (source of emulation) by mid-century. Unlike many clerics of his time, Khomeini was deeply political. He believed that Islam had to be a guiding force not only in personal life but in governance.
His critique of the Pahlavi monarchy’s Westernization policies and secularism grew increasingly confrontational in the 1960s. The Shah’s “White Revolution” reforms, which included land redistribution and women’s suffrage, were seen by Khomeini as an attack on Islamic values and clerical authority. His vocal opposition led to arrest, exile, and a growing underground network of followers.
Velayat-e Faqih: A Revolutionary Doctrine
The cornerstone of Khomeini’s impact on Shiism is his theory of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist), laid out in his 1970 lectures later compiled into a book. Traditionally, Shiite scholars had argued that political rule should remain in abeyance until the return of the hidden 12th Imam, the Mahdi. Khomeini overturned this idea by insisting that qualified jurists (faqihs) had a religious duty to govern in the Imam’s absence.
This was a theological and political earthquake. Khomeini was saying that not only could clerics rule—they must rule. This interpretation injected Shiite jurisprudence with political immediacy and served as the ideological blueprint for the Islamic Republic of Iran.
The 1979 Iranian Revolution
Khomeini returned to Iran in February 1979 after 14 years in exile (mostly in Iraq and later France), where he had built a transnational revolutionary movement. The Pahlavi monarchy collapsed in the face of massive protests, and Khomeini emerged as the supreme leader of a new Islamic Republic.
The revolution had profound religious implications. It was the first time in over a millennium that a modern nation-state was governed explicitly by Shiite clerics under divine authority. Khomeini was declared Iran’s Supreme Leader, combining religious and political power in a way unseen in contemporary Islam.
Global Impact on Shiism
1. Shiism Transformed into a Political Force
Historically, Shiism had been characterized by quietism, martyrdom, and political marginalization. Khomeini redefined it as a revolutionary ideology, placing it at the center of political change. He cast the Islamic Revolution as the fulfillment of Shiite values like resistance to tyranny and the defense of justice—values epitomized in the martyrdom of Imam Husayn at Karbala.
This ideological shift inspired Shiite communities in Lebanon, Iraq, Bahrain, Pakistan, and elsewhere to reimagine their roles within their own societies, often leading to greater political mobilization and, in some cases, confrontation with Sunni-dominated states.
2. Rise of Hezbollah and the ‘Axis of Resistance’
One of the most significant outgrowths of Khomeini’s vision was the formation of Hezbollah in Lebanon in the early 1980s. Backed by Iran’s Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), Hezbollah fused Shiite theology with military resistance, especially against Israeli occupation.
Hezbollah’s success—both as a militia and a political party—became a model for other Shiite movements. Khomeini’s Iran established what later became known as the Axis of Resistance, comprising Iran, Hezbollah, Syria, and various Iraqi and Yemeni Shiite groups, all united by opposition to Western influence and Israeli policy.
3. Clerical Authority Redefined
Khomeini’s concept of Velayat-e Faqih created a new hierarchy in Shiism. Traditionally, each marja' operated independently, and laypeople chose whom to follow. Khomeini’s model centralized religious authority within the Iranian state and made loyalty to the Supreme Leader a quasi-religious obligation.
While many Shiite scholars—especially those based in Najaf, Iraq, like Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani—rejected this model in favor of political quietism, Khomeini’s ideas gained traction in Shiite communities that felt politically disenfranchised.
4. Institutionalizing Shiism
Under Khomeini’s rule, Shiism became institutionalized at an unprecedented scale. Iran established seminaries, media outlets, charities, and military proxies that exported the revolution's message across borders. The Islamic Republic began sponsoring Shiite clerics abroad, thereby influencing religious education, community leadership, and political activism in Shiite diasporas from Africa to Southeast Asia.
Criticism and Controversy
Khomeini’s blending of religion and state power attracted significant criticism, even within the Shiite world. His detractors argue that Velayat-e Faqih undermines the pluralism and intellectual independence traditionally found in Shiism. Others point to the repression of dissent in post-revolutionary Iran as evidence of the dangers of clerical rule.
Moreover, the Islamic Republic’s foreign policy—marked by regional interventions and support for non-state actors—has heightened Sunni-Shiite tensions across the Middle East. Many Sunni-majority countries view Iran’s revolutionary Shiism as a threat to regional stability.
Enduring Legacy
Ayatollah Khomeini died in 1989, but his legacy continues to shape global Shiism. His successor, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, has preserved the core tenets of his vision. While some aspects of Iranian society have modernized, the fundamental structure of the Islamic Republic remains deeply rooted in Khomeini’s doctrine.
For many Shiites around the world, especially those in marginalized or oppressed communities, Khomeini’s message remains empowering. It provides a theological rationale for resistance, social justice, and political participation. For others, especially traditional clerics and secular critics, it represents a dangerous conflation of spiritual and temporal authority.
Conclusion
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini was not just the architect of Iran’s 1979 revolution—he was the architect of a new form of Shiism. By turning a historically quietist religious tradition into a revolutionary, state-guiding force, he changed how Shiite Islam is understood and practiced across the globe.
His influence is evident today in both the geopolitical strength of Iran and the activism of Shiite communities throughout the Middle East. Whether one views his impact as positive or problematic, few can deny that Khomeini reshaped Shiism in ways that continue to reverberate through the modern Islamic world.
