Ayatollah Khomeini and His Agenda to Dominate Makkah and Madinah

The political and religious landscape of the Middle East underwent profound changes with the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the revolutionary leader of the movement, became the Supreme Leader of Iran, steering the country into an era of Islamic governance based on his interpretation of Shia Islam. While Khomeini's regime fundamentally transformed Iran and reshaped its foreign policy, his ambitions extended beyond the borders of his country. One of the more contentious elements of Khomeini's vision was his desire to assert influence over the Muslim holy cities of Makkah and Madinah, located in Saudi Arabia. This ambition to dominate the two sacred cities has been a subject of significant debate among political analysts, religious scholars, and historians.

The Role of Makkah and Madinah in Islamic Thought

Makkah and Madinah are among the most important cities in the Islamic world. Makkah is home to the Kaaba, the holiest site in Islam, located within the Masjid al-Haram mosque. It is the direction toward which Muslims face during their daily prayers and the destination of the Hajj pilgrimage, which is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Madinah, the second holiest city, houses the mosque of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Masjid al-Nabawi, and is where the Prophet is buried. As such, both cities are central to Islamic worship, theology, and identity.

While the Saudi royal family governs the cities, they hold a significant position within the Sunni sect of Islam. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia controls the cities as custodians of the two holy mosques, a title they claim through their royal lineage and their deep connection with Sunni religious practices. However, for Khomeini and many within the Shia community, especially those who view the Sunni-Shia schism as not just theological but political, the Saudi monarchy’s control over these cities was seen as problematic.

Khomeini's Vision for Islam

Ayatollah Khomeini’s revolution in Iran was not merely a political shift but an ideological one. His vision of an "Islamic Republic" was based on the concept of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Jurisprudent), a system in which a senior religious figure, in this case, Khomeini himself, held ultimate political authority. Khomeini’s interpretation of Islam rejected secularism and promoted an idealized version of an Islamic government that, he believed, should spread throughout the Muslim world.

From the outset, Khomeini sought to unify the Muslim ummah (community) under the banner of his Islamic Republic. This unification, however, was not based on respect for the diverse traditions within Islam but on the idea of centralizing the Muslim world under his brand of Shia Islamic governance. Khomeini believed that the Shia clerical leadership had a unique role in guiding the Muslim community, and he viewed himself as the natural leader of the Muslim ummah.

His vision included a more prominent role for Shia Islam, which had been marginalized within the Sunni-majority Muslim world, and the establishment of a new Islamic order that would challenge the power structures of Sunni-led countries, including Saudi Arabia. His stance on Makkah and Madinah, as symbols of this broader struggle, can be traced back to his belief that the Saudi monarchy was a tool of Western imperialism and an obstacle to his revolutionary goals.

The Conflict Between Shia and Sunni Islam

The geopolitical and religious tension between Shia and Sunni Islam significantly impacted Khomeini’s views on Makkah and Madinah. For centuries, the divide between these two branches of Islam has shaped political and religious interactions. Khomeini saw the Saudi monarchy’s strong ties to the United States and its influence in the Sunni world as part of a broader conspiracy against the Shia community, which he believed was centered in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

The Saudi monarchy, on the other hand, viewed itself as the guardian of Islam’s holiest sites, with an obligation to protect the integrity and sanctity of Makkah and Madinah. For Khomeini, however, this role was not legitimate because it was rooted in the Saudi monarchy's collaboration with Western powers. Khomeini’s ideology rejected the idea that a Sunni dynasty should control the holy cities, seeing it as a product of Western imperialism that kept the Muslim world divided.

One key aspect of Khomeini’s agenda was his goal of establishing a more significant Shia presence in these sacred cities, which he believed were critical to the future of the Islamic world. In this context, Khomeini sought to undermine Saudi control by positioning his revolution as the legitimate force for a truly Islamic governance system, one that transcended sectarian divides and united Muslims under Shia leadership.

Khomeini’s Attempts to Influence Makkah and Madinah

While Khomeini’s revolution primarily focused on reshaping Iran’s political system, his foreign policy was equally bold. His rhetoric and actions often challenged Saudi Arabia's authority, particularly in relation to the holy cities.

1. The 1979 Iranian Hajj Incident: One of the earliest signs of Khomeini’s ambition to exert influence over Makkah and Madinah occurred during the Hajj pilgrimage in 1979, the year of his revolution. Following his rise to power, Khomeini’s government sent strong political signals by supporting the Iranian pilgrims who staged protests during the Hajj. These protests, largely aimed at the Shah’s regime and its ties to the West, were also a way for Khomeini to highlight his dissatisfaction with Saudi Arabia’s handling of the pilgrimage. In the aftermath of the revolution, Khomeini’s rhetoric began to target the Saudi monarchy, accusing it of being a puppet of the West and failing to protect Islam’s sanctity.

2. Support for the 1987 Makkah Massacre: Tensions between Iran and Saudi Arabia escalated in the years following the revolution. In 1987, a violent confrontation broke out between Iranian pilgrims and Saudi security forces during the Hajj. The incident, which resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Iranian pilgrims, further strained relations between the two nations. Khomeini’s support for the Iranian pilgrims and his denunciation of Saudi Arabia for its handling of the situation contributed to the increasing animosity between the two countries.

3. The Propaganda War: Khomeini also used propaganda to criticize the Saudi regime’s stewardship of the holy cities. His government aimed to portray the Saudis as illegitimate rulers, accusing them of neglecting the true principles of Islam. He called for a reimagining of the Islamic world, one where the leadership of Shia clerics played a more prominent role in guiding the faithful.

Khomeini’s Long-Term Vision

Khomeini’s broader vision for Makkah and Madinah went beyond his criticism of the Saudi monarchy. He sought to position Iran as the political and spiritual leader of the Muslim world. To that end, he encouraged the creation of an Islamic bloc of nations, unified under a vision of Islamic governance based on Shia principles. Khomeini’s rhetoric positioned the Saudis as usurpers of the true Islamic cause, framing them as protectors of corrupt practices rather than defenders of Islam’s most sacred sites.

Moreover, Khomeini’s agenda to dominate Makkah and Madinah was a manifestation of his larger goal to reshape the Muslim world under a new, Islamic political order led by the Shia. His aspirations were not just territorial or political but symbolic, seeking to turn these holy cities into powerful symbols of Shia religious dominance in the Islamic world.

Conclusion

Ayatollah Khomeini’s desire to dominate Makkah and Madinah was not merely about gaining control of sacred religious sites; it was part of a broader ideological struggle. By challenging the Saudi monarchy’s control over the holy cities, Khomeini sought to advance a revolutionary vision of Islam, one that placed Shia clerical leadership at the forefront of global Islam. His rhetoric, actions, and support for Iranian pilgrims were all part of his strategy to undermine Saudi Arabia’s legitimacy and assert Iran’s position as the true leader of the Muslim ummah. This ambition ultimately created significant tension between Iran and Saudi Arabia, tensions that have shaped the geopolitical dynamics of the region for decades.

The Fall of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258: A Controversial Narrative of Shiite Treachery

Introduction

The collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258 marked one of the most significant turning points in Islamic history. This event, culminating in the Mongol sack of Baghdad, has been attributed to various causes, including political fragmentation, administrative inefficiencies, and external invasions. However, a controversial narrative blames the fall on alleged Shiite treachery, a perspective rooted in sectarian biases that continue to resonate in some circles today. This article explores the historical context, events, and implications of this accusation, separating historical fact from sectarian myth.

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Part 1: The Abbasid Caliphate Before the Fall

The Abbasid Caliphate, established in 750 CE, reached its zenith during the "Golden Age of Islam," with Baghdad as a thriving center of culture, science, and commerce. However, by the 13th century, the empire faced significant challenges:

• Political Decentralization: Regional governors and military commanders gained autonomy, weakening central authority.
• Economic Decline: Overextension and the inability to control trade routes diminished the caliphate's wealth.
• Sectarian Divisions: Tensions between Sunni and Shiite factions eroded internal unity.

These vulnerabilities left the Abbasids ill-prepared for the Mongol threat led by Hulagu Khan.

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Part 2: The Role of Shiite Figures in the Fall

One of the most contentious aspects of the fall of Baghdad is the role of Ibn al-Alqami, a Shiite vizier serving under the last Abbasid caliph, Al-Musta'sim. Critics accuse him of:

• Weakening the Caliphate’s Defenses: Allegedly advising the caliph to reduce the size of the army, leaving Baghdad vulnerable.
• Collaborating with the Mongols: Purportedly exchanging secret communications with Hulagu Khan, providing intelligence on Baghdad’s defenses.

Historians debate the validity of these claims. While some Sunni chronicles vilify Ibn al-Alqami as a traitor, others suggest these accusations were later fabrications to scapegoat Shiite Muslims amid broader sectarian conflicts.

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Part 3: The Siege and Sack of Baghdad

The Mongols laid siege to Baghdad in January 1258, and within weeks, the city fell. Key events include:

• Negotiation and Deception: Ibn al-Alqami reportedly encouraged Al-Musta'sim to negotiate with Hulagu, underestimating Mongol ruthlessness.
• Massacre and Destruction: Once inside the city, the Mongols unleashed unparalleled devastation, killing hundreds of thousands and obliterating centuries of cultural and intellectual achievements.
• The Execution of the Caliph: Al-Musta'sim was executed, marking the symbolic end of the Abbasid Caliphate as a political power.

While the Mongols bear direct responsibility for the destruction, the perception of internal betrayal exacerbates the narrative of Shiite treachery.

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Part 4: Contextualizing the Accusations

The claims against Shiite Muslims must be analyzed within the broader context of Sunni-Shiite relations:

• Sectarian Rivalries: By the 13th century, Sunni dominance under the Abbasids marginalized Shiite communities, fostering resentment.
• Historical Bias in Chronicles: Sunni historians, such as Ibn Taymiyyah, shaped the narrative of Shiite betrayal, which some argue reflects sectarian propaganda rather than objective history.
• Alternative Perspectives: Modern historians emphasize systemic issues within the Abbasid administration and the overwhelming strength of the Mongols as the primary causes of the fall.

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Part 5: The Legacy of the Fall

The fall of Baghdad had far-reaching consequences:

• End of the Abbasid Caliphate: Although a symbolic Abbasid presence continued in Cairo under Mamluk patronage, the caliphate's political power was irreversibly diminished.
• Shift in Islamic Power Centers: The destruction of Baghdad paved the way for the rise of other Islamic empires, such as the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals.
• Sectarian Narratives: The accusation of Shiite treachery deepened divisions between Sunni and Shiite Muslims, with echoes of this narrative persisting in modern conflicts.

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Conclusion

The fall of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258 remains a watershed moment in Islamic history, with narratives of Shiite treachery reflecting the complex interplay of historical fact and sectarian bias. While Ibn al-Alqami’s role remains controversial, attributing the caliphate's collapse solely to internal betrayal oversimplifies a multifaceted event. Understanding this history requires moving beyond sectarian blame to appreciate the broader dynamics that shaped the Islamic world in the aftermath of Baghdad’s fall.

The Shiite Muslims: A Minority within the Islamic Nation

Islam, one of the world’s major religions, is deeply diverse, encompassing a range of beliefs, practices, and cultural expressions. Among its adherents, Sunni Muslims constitute the majority, while Shiite Muslims, or Shia, represent a significant minority. Although Shiites make up approximately 10-15% of the global Muslim population, their influence on the religion’s history, theology, and politics is profound. Understanding the Shiite minority requires delving into their historical origins, theological distinctions, and the socio-political dynamics that have shaped their role within the Islamic ummah (community).

Historical Roots of the Sunni-Shia Divide

The split between Sunni and Shia Muslims originated in the early years of Islam, following the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE. At the heart of this division was the question of leadership. Sunnis believed that the community should select the Prophet’s successor, leading to the appointment of Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s close companion, as the first caliph. In contrast, Shiites held that leadership should remain within the Prophet’s family, specifically through his cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib.

This disagreement over succession was not merely political but carried profound theological implications. For Shiites, Ali and his descendants, known as the Imams, were considered divinely appointed leaders with spiritual and temporal authority. This belief in the sanctity and infallibility of the Imams became a cornerstone of Shia theology, setting them apart from Sunnis, who do not ascribe such attributes to their leaders.

The divide deepened with historical events such as the Battle of Karbala in 680 CE, where Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of the Prophet and the third Shia Imam, was martyred by the forces of the Umayyad caliph Yazid. This tragic event became a defining moment for Shiite identity, symbolizing resistance against tyranny and injustice. The annual commemoration of Husayn’s martyrdom during Ashura remains a central practice in Shia Islam.

Demographics and Distribution

Shiite Muslims are a minority within the global Islamic population, estimated to be around 200 million out of approximately 1.9 billion Muslims worldwide. They are predominantly concentrated in specific regions, including Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, Azerbaijan, and Lebanon. Significant Shia communities also exist in Pakistan, India, Yemen, and Afghanistan.

Iran stands out as the only country where Shia Islam is the state religion, with the majority of its population adhering to the Twelver Shia tradition. Iraq also has a Shia majority, though its political landscape has historically been influenced by Sunni elites until recent decades. In Lebanon, the Shia are a significant minority, represented politically by groups such as Hezbollah. These geographic concentrations have allowed Shia communities to maintain their distinct religious practices and develop robust cultural identities, even in the face of historical marginalization.

Theological Distinctions

While Sunni and Shia Muslims share fundamental beliefs, such as the Five Pillars of Islam and the Quran as the holy scripture, they differ in several theological and jurisprudential aspects. Central to Shia belief is the doctrine of Imamate, which holds that Imams are divinely chosen leaders endowed with spiritual and temporal authority. Twelver Shia Islam, the largest Shia sect, recognizes a line of twelve Imams, beginning with Ali and culminating with Muhammad al-Mahdi, the hidden Imam who is believed to be in occultation and will return as a messianic figure.

Shia jurisprudence (fiqh) also exhibits differences from Sunni schools of law. For instance, Shia legal tradition allows temporary marriage (mut'ah) and places significant emphasis on reasoning (ijtihad) in deriving legal rulings. Moreover, Shia practices include distinct rituals, such as the mourning ceremonies of Ashura, which commemorate the martyrdom of Husayn at Karbala. These theological and ritual differences have often been sources of contention between Sunni and Shia communities.

Political and Social Marginalization

Throughout history, Shia Muslims have often faced political and social marginalization, particularly in regions dominated by Sunni rulers. The Sunni-majority Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire, which established Shia Islam as the state religion in Iran, exemplify contrasting historical dynamics between the two sects. While the Safavids institutionalized Shia practices and promoted Shia scholarship, Shia communities in Sunni-ruled regions frequently endured discrimination and persecution.

In modern times, the sectarian divide has been exacerbated by political and geopolitical factors. The Iranian Revolution of 1979, which established a Shia theocracy under Ayatollah Khomeini, marked a turning point in Shia-Sunni relations. Iran’s promotion of Shia political activism inspired Shia minorities in other countries but also provoked suspicion and backlash from Sunni-majority states. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), driven partly by sectarian and ideological rivalry, further entrenched these divisions.

Today, the Sunni-Shia divide continues to shape Middle Eastern politics, with conflicts in Syria, Yemen, and Iraq often framed in sectarian terms. However, it is essential to recognize that these conflicts are also influenced by broader geopolitical and economic factors, and reducing them to purely religious disputes oversimplifies their complexity.

Contributions to Islamic Civilization

Despite their minority status, Shiite Muslims have made significant contributions to Islamic civilization. Shia scholars, such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Allama Tabatabai, have enriched Islamic philosophy, theology, and science. The Shia tradition has also fostered a vibrant literary and artistic heritage, evident in the poetry of figures like Rumi (influenced by Shia mysticism) and the elaborate architecture of shrines in Najaf, Karbala, and Mashhad.

Shia political thought, particularly the concept of resistance against tyranny, has had a lasting impact on Islamic discourse. The legacy of figures like Husayn ibn Ali serves as an enduring symbol of justice and defiance against oppression, inspiring movements far beyond the Shia community.

Challenges and Prospects

As a minority within the Islamic nation, Shiite Muslims face ongoing challenges, including sectarian violence, discrimination, and political exclusion. In countries like Pakistan and Saudi Arabia, Shia communities have been targeted by extremist groups, highlighting the urgent need for inter-sectarian dialogue and reconciliation.

Efforts to bridge the Sunni-Shia divide have been made by religious leaders and organizations, emphasizing shared beliefs and the importance of unity within the ummah. Prominent figures, such as the late Ayatollah Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah and Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb of Al-Azhar, have called for greater mutual understanding and cooperation. Such initiatives are crucial in fostering a more inclusive and harmonious Islamic community.

Conclusion

Shiite Muslims, though a minority within the Islamic nation, have played a pivotal role in shaping the religion’s history, theology, and culture. Their unique beliefs, practices, and experiences underscore the diversity within Islam and the need to recognize and respect this pluralism. As the global Muslim community navigates the challenges of the 21st century, fostering unity while embracing diversity remains a vital goal. By addressing historical grievances and promoting dialogue, the Islamic ummah can move toward a future of greater harmony and mutual understanding.

The Assassination of Caliph Ali: A Complex Historical and Theological Event

Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph of Islam and a key figure in both Sunni and Shiite traditions, holds a unique and deeply revered position in Islamic history. His assassination in 661 CE by a Kharijite, Abdur Rahman ibn Muljam, marked a pivotal moment in the early history of Islam, reflecting the fractious political and religious dynamics of the time. The fact that ibn Muljam had previously aligned with Shiite sentiments before adopting Kharijite ideology adds layers of complexity to this tragic event.

The Rise of Ali and the Context of His Leadership

Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad, was a central figure in the early Islamic community. As one of the earliest converts to Islam and a close confidant of the Prophet, Ali's spiritual and political credentials were unquestionable to many. After the assassination of the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, in 656 CE, Ali assumed leadership as the fourth caliph.

However, Ali’s tenure as caliph was fraught with challenges. He inherited a deeply divided community, torn by disputes over leadership, governance, and justice. The tensions were compounded by the unresolved grievances related to Uthman’s assassination, with factions demanding retribution and others advocating reconciliation. Ali's decision to prioritize unity over vengeance alienated key figures, including Aisha, Talha, and Zubair, who opposed him in the Battle of the Camel. This battle was one of several significant conflicts that defined Ali's caliphate.

The Emergence of the Kharijites

The most significant and enduring opposition to Ali's leadership came from the Kharijites, a radical sect that emerged during the first Islamic civil war (fitna). The Kharijites initially supported Ali but turned against him after the arbitration process following the Battle of Siffin in 657 CE. This battle was fought between Ali and Muawiya, the governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman, who refused to recognize Ali's caliphate until Uthman's killers were punished.

When arbitration was proposed to resolve the conflict, Ali reluctantly agreed. The Kharijites, who had been among his staunchest supporters, viewed this decision as a betrayal of divine will. They believed that only God could judge and that human arbitration was an affront to divine authority. Declaring both Ali and Muawiya to be sinners, the Kharijites withdrew their support and began a campaign of ideological and physical rebellion against the caliphate.

Abdur Rahman ibn Muljam: From Shiite Sympathizer to Kharijite Assassin

Abdur Rahman ibn Muljam’s journey from being a Shiite sympathizer to a Kharijite assassin underscores the volatile ideological landscape of the time. As a Shiite, he likely admired Ali for his close relationship with the Prophet and his claims to legitimate leadership. The Shiites, or “party of Ali,” supported Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad, emphasizing his spiritual authority and familial connection.

However, ibn Muljam’s disillusionment with Ali began during the arbitration process at Siffin. For Kharijites like ibn Muljam, Ali’s acceptance of human arbitration symbolized a failure to uphold God’s supreme authority. Ibn Muljam’s radicalization was further fueled by the Kharijite doctrine, which emphasized uncompromising adherence to their interpretation of Islam, even at the cost of rebellion against established authority.

The Assassination of Ali

The assassination of Ali occurred on the 19th of Ramadan in 661 CE while he was praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa. Ibn Muljam struck Ali on the head with a poisoned sword, delivering a fatal wound. Ali succumbed to his injuries two days later, leaving the Muslim community in mourning and deepening the divisions that had already fractured the ummah.

Ibn Muljam’s motives were rooted in Kharijite ideology, which justified violence against those they deemed apostates or sinners. For the Kharijites, Ali’s perceived failure to uphold divine justice made him a legitimate target. This assassination was not merely a political act but a statement of religious conviction, reflecting the extreme measures the Kharijites were willing to take to assert their beliefs.

Theological and Political Implications

Ali’s assassination had profound theological and political ramifications. For the Shiites, Ali’s martyrdom reinforced his status as a paragon of piety and a victim of injustice. His death marked the beginning of a long history of Shiite mourning and commemoration, culminating in the annual observance of Ashura to honor the martyrdom of his son, Husayn, at Karbala.

For the Sunni majority, Ali’s death represented the tragic loss of a leader who sought to navigate the complex and contentious dynamics of the early Muslim community. While Sunnis revere Ali as one of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, his assassination highlighted the challenges of maintaining unity and justice in a rapidly expanding and diverse Islamic polity.

The Kharijites, meanwhile, became a marginalized and vilified sect within Islam. Their extremist views and violent actions alienated them from both Sunni and Shiite communities. The legacy of their rebellion, however, persisted in the form of ongoing debates about the role of divine authority, human judgment, and the legitimacy of rebellion against unjust rulers.

Lessons from History

The assassination of Ali by a Kharijite who had previously aligned with Shiite beliefs serves as a poignant reminder of the complexities of early Islamic history. It illustrates how ideological rigidity and political strife can fracture communities and lead to violence. Ali’s life and death continue to inspire reflection on the values of justice, unity, and piety in the face of adversity.

In contemporary times, the story of Ali’s assassination offers valuable lessons for navigating religious and political differences. It underscores the importance of dialogue, empathy, and a commitment to shared principles, even amidst profound disagreements. By studying the life and legacy of Ali, Muslims and non-Muslims alike can gain a deeper appreciation for the challenges and opportunities of leadership in times of division.

Conclusion

The murder of Caliph Ali by Abdur Rahman ibn Muljam is a multifaceted historical event, shaped by the interplay of theological convictions, political ambitions, and personal grievances. It highlights the enduring impact of Ali’s leadership and the divisive consequences of ideological extremism. As one of the most significant figures in Islamic history, Ali’s legacy continues to resonate, offering insights into the complexities of faith, governance, and human relationships in a diverse and dynamic world.