Khomeinisme oleh Said Hawwa

Said Hawwa (1935–1989) adalah seorang ulama terkemuka dari Syria dan anggota penting dalam gerakan Ikhwanul Muslimin di negara tersebut. Beliau dikenali kerana penentangannya terhadap rejim Ba'ath pimpinan Hafez al-Assad dan sumbangannya dalam pemikiran Islam kontemporari. Salah satu karya penting beliau ialah buku yang mengkritik ajaran dan ideologi Khomeinisme, yang merupakan interpretasi Syiah yang dipromosikan oleh Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini selepas Revolusi Iran 1979.

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Latar Belakang Said Hawwa

Said Hawwa dilahirkan di Hama, Syria, dan mendapat pendidikan dalam bidang Syariah di Universiti Damascus. Beliau aktif dalam gerakan Ikhwanul Muslimin dan terlibat dalam penentangan terhadap rejim Ba'ath yang sekular dan otoritarian. Sebagai seorang ulama Hanafi, beliau menulis banyak buku yang membincangkan prinsip organisasi Islam, latihan spiritual bagi aktivis Muslim, serta isu-isu tafsir, fiqh, dan akidah dalam Islam.

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Khomeinisme dan Revolusi Iran

Khomeinisme merujuk kepada idea dan amalan politik serta keagamaan yang dikaitkan dengan Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, pemimpin Revolusi Iran 1979. Revolusi ini menggulingkan monarki Pahlavi dan menubuhkan sebuah republik teokratik berdasarkan interpretasi Syiah Twelver. Khomeini memperkenalkan konsep Wilayat al-Faqih, yang menekankan bahawa ulama memiliki autoriti politik dan keagamaan tertinggi dalam ketiadaan Imam Mahdi.

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Kritikan Said Hawwa terhadap Khomeinisme

Dalam bukunya yang bertajuk "Khomeinisme: Menyingkap Tabir Kepalsuan Akidah dan Ideologi", Said Hawwa mengkritik keras ajaran Khomeini. Beliau menuduh Khomeini menyimpang dalam beberapa aspek utama akidah Islam, antaranya:

1. Konsep Imamah yang Melampau: Khomeini menekankan konsep Imamah dengan cara yang dianggap melampaui batas oleh Hawwa. Menurut Hawwa, penekanan berlebihan terhadap kepimpinan Imam dalam Syiah Twelver boleh membawa kepada pengagungan individu yang tidak sesuai dengan ajaran Islam yang sebenar.

2. Penyelewengan Terhadap Al-Quran: Hawwa menuduh bahawa terdapat elemen dalam ajaran Khomeini yang menyatakan bahawa Al-Quran telah diselewengkan atau tidak lengkap, satu pandangan yang ditolak oleh majoriti ulama Sunni.

3. Sikap Terhadap Sahabat Rasulullah SAW: Khomeini dan pengikutnya didakwa merendahkan martabat para sahabat Nabi Muhammad SAW, yang dianggap sebagai tokoh penting dalam tradisi Sunni.

4. Penentangan Terhadap Ijma' Ulama: Hawwa menuduh Khomeini menolak konsensus ulama (ijma'), yang merupakan salah satu sumber utama hukum dalam Islam Sunni.

5. Penghalalan Nikah Mut'ah: Khomeini menghalalkan nikah mut'ah (perkahwinan sementara), yang dianggap haram oleh majoriti ulama Sunni.

Hawwa berpendapat bahawa ajaran-ajaran ini bukan sahaja menyimpang dari ajaran Islam yang sebenar tetapi juga berpotensi menyesatkan umat Islam di seluruh dunia.

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Implikasi Khomeinisme terhadap Dunia Islam

Khomeinisme bukan sahaja merupakan sebuah doktrin keagamaan tetapi juga sebuah gerakan politik yang berusaha menyebarkan pengaruh Iran di dunia Islam. Selepas Revolusi Iran, terdapat usaha untuk mengekspor revolusi tersebut ke negara-negara lain, yang menimbulkan kebimbangan di kalangan negara-negara Sunni. Hawwa melihat ini sebagai ancaman terhadap kesatuan dan kestabilan dunia Islam, terutama di negara-negara dengan populasi Syiah yang signifikan.

Reaksi Dunia Sunni terhadap Khomeinisme

Kritikan Hawwa terhadap Khomeinisme mencerminkan kebimbangan yang lebih luas di kalangan ulama dan intelektual Sunni. Banyak yang melihat Khomeinisme sebagai usaha untuk mengubah struktur politik dan keagamaan tradisional di negara-negara Muslim. Sebagai contoh, konsep Wilayat al-Faqih yang diperkenalkan oleh Khomeini dianggap bertentangan dengan prinsip-prinsip politik Sunni yang menekankan pemisahan antara autoriti keagamaan dan politik.

Kesimpulan

Kritikan Said Hawwa terhadap Khomeinisme menyoroti perbezaan mendalam antara interpretasi Sunni dan Syiah terhadap Islam. Beliau menekankan pentingnya berpegang kepada ajaran Islam yang murni dan berhati-hati terhadap ideologi yang berpotensi menyesatkan. Buku beliau berfungsi sebagai peringatan kepada umat Islam untuk sentiasa kritis dan waspada terhadap ajaran yang mungkin menyimpang dari jalan yang benar.

Melalui analisis kritis terhadap Khomeinisme, Said Hawwa memberikan pandangan yang mendalam tentang bagaimana ideologi keagamaan dapat mempengaruhi dinamika politik dan sosial dalam dunia Islam. Karya beliau tetap relevan dalam memahami ketegangan sektarian dan perdebatan teologi yang berlanjutan hingga hari ini.

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Khomeinisme oleh Said Hawwa

The Criticisms of Ibn Taimiyyah towards Shiism in Minhaj As-Sunnah An-Nabawiyyah

Introduction

Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328 CE) was a prominent Islamic scholar of the Hanbali school, known for his strict adherence to Sunni orthodoxy and his critiques of theological deviations. His work Minhaj As-Sunnah An-Nabawiyyah was written as a rebuttal to Minhaj Al-Karamah, a book by the Twelver Shia scholar Al-Hilli. In Minhaj As-Sunnah, Ibn Taymiyyah systematically criticizes the foundational beliefs of Shiism, particularly those of the Twelver sect. His arguments focus on theological, historical, and rational critiques, aiming to defend Sunni orthodoxy against what he perceives as heretical innovations.

Theological Critiques

1. The Concept of Imamate

One of the core criticisms of Ibn Taymiyyah is the Shi’a doctrine of Imamate. Twelver Shiism asserts that leadership in Islam is divinely designated and that the twelve Imams are infallible and appointed by God. Ibn Taymiyyah challenges this notion by arguing:

• The Qur'an does not explicitly endorse the doctrine of Imamate.

• Leadership should be based on merit and consensus rather than divine selection.

• The concept of infallibility contradicts human nature and Islamic teachings, as even the prophets were subject to human limitations.

He argues that the Shi’a reliance on Imamate undermines the legitimacy of the first three caliphs and is not supported by the majority of early Muslim scholars.

2. The Status of the Companions

Shiism often criticizes certain companions of the Prophet Muhammad, particularly Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, for their role in opposing Ali’s leadership. Ibn Taymiyyah staunchly defends the Companions, arguing that:

• They were chosen by God to accompany the Prophet and spread Islam.

• Their consensus (ijma) on appointing Abu Bakr as the first caliph is a valid proof of legitimate leadership.

• Criticism of the Companions leads to discord and sectarianism within the Muslim community.

By defending the integrity of the Companions, Ibn Taymiyyah seeks to discredit Shi’a claims of a historical conspiracy against Ali.

Historical Critiques

1. Events of Saqifah and Ghadir Khumm

Shi’a scholars often cite the event of Ghadir Khumm as proof that the Prophet appointed Ali as his successor. Ibn Taymiyyah disputes this claim, arguing that:

• The statement “Whomever I am his mawla, Ali is his mawla” does not indicate political leadership but rather close friendship and spiritual brotherhood.

• The events at Saqifah, where Abu Bakr was chosen as caliph, were a legitimate political decision made through consultation.

• Early Muslim history does not support the idea of a divinely appointed hereditary leadership.

2. The Karbala Tragedy

While acknowledging the tragedy of Karbala, Ibn Taymiyyah criticizes the Shi’a emphasis on Ashura and the mourning rituals associated with it. He argues that:

• Excessive mourning and self-flagellation are innovations (bid’ah) that were not practiced by the Prophet or his Companions.

• The political mistakes of Yazid do not justify the rejection of Sunni leadership.

• The emphasis on Karbala distracts from the broader Islamic teachings on patience and divine justice.

Rational and Philosophical Critiques

Ibn Taymiyyah also employs rational arguments to critique Shiism. He challenges the logic behind the Shi’a concept of divine appointment and infallibility, stating that:

• The belief in a hidden Imam (Muhammad al-Mahdi) contradicts practical leadership and governance.

• The rejection of the majority of the Prophet’s Companions is an illogical stance, as they were the ones who transmitted Islamic teachings.

• Sunni Islam provides a more pragmatic approach to leadership and community unity.

Conclusion

Ibn Taymiyyah’s Minhaj As-Sunnah An-Nabawiyyah remains one of the most detailed and systematic critiques of Shiism from a Sunni perspective. His arguments, rooted in theology, history, and rationality, have been influential in shaping Sunni-Shi’a polemics. While his critiques are considered harsh and polemical, they continue to be referenced in contemporary Islamic discourse. Understanding Ibn Taymiyyah’s work provides insight into the historical and theological tensions between Sunni and Shi’a Islam and the broader debates on Islamic leadership and doctrine.

Sunnism and Shiism: Two Different Religions?

Introduction

The division between Sunni and Shia Islam is one of the most significant schisms in religious history. While both sects share fundamental beliefs, their theological, political, and cultural differences have led to distinct religious identities. Some scholars argue that Sunnism and Shiism have evolved into separate religions rather than mere sectarian divisions within Islam. This article explores the historical roots, doctrinal differences, and sociopolitical impacts of this division to assess whether Sunnism and Shiism can be regarded as distinct religions.

Historical Origins of the Sunni-Shia Split

The division between Sunnis and Shias originates from a dispute over the rightful successor to the Prophet Muhammad. After Muhammad's death in 632 CE, the Muslim community faced a leadership crisis. Sunnis believed that the leader, or caliph, should be chosen based on consensus and merit, leading to the selection of Abu Bakr as the first caliph. In contrast, Shias argued that leadership should remain within the Prophet’s family, specifically with his cousin and son-in-law, Ali.

This political disagreement soon evolved into a theological and ideological divide. The martyrdom of Ali’s son, Husayn, at the Battle of Karbala in 680 CE deepened Shia sentiments and solidified their identity as a distinct group within Islam. Over time, these divisions led to the development of separate theological doctrines, religious practices, and jurisprudential traditions.

Doctrinal Differences

While Sunnis and Shias share core Islamic beliefs, such as the oneness of God (Tawhid), the Quran, and the Five Pillars of Islam, they diverge significantly in key areas of doctrine.

1. Authority and Leadership

   • Sunnis: Follow a decentralized approach to religious authority, relying on scholars and consensus (Ijma) to interpret Islamic teachings.

   • Shias: Believe in a divinely appointed line of Imams, beginning with Ali, who possess special spiritual authority and are considered infallible.

2. Hadith and Legal Schools

   • Sunnis rely on Hadith collections compiled by scholars like Bukhari and Muslim, and follow four major schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali.

   • Shias primarily follow the Hadith collections attributed to their Imams and adhere to the Jafari school of jurisprudence.

3. Concept of Martyrdom and Suffering

   • Shia Islam places a strong emphasis on martyrdom, particularly through the annual commemoration of Ashura, mourning the death of Husayn.

   • While Sunnis also respect Husayn, they do not engage in the same level of ritual mourning.

4. Messianism and Eschatology

   • Shias believe in the concept of the Mahdi, a hidden Imam who will return to establish justice.

   • Sunnis also believe in a Mahdi, but their interpretation differs, and they do not attribute him with the same spiritual status as the Shia perspective.

Religious Practices and Rituals

The differences between Sunnism and Shiism extend beyond theology into worship and religious practices:

• Prayer: Shias often combine the five daily prayers into three, while Sunnis pray five distinct times.

• Ashura: A day of mourning for Shias, commemorated with reenactments of the Battle of Karbala, self-flagellation, and mourning ceremonies. For Sunnis, Ashura is a day of fasting and reflection.

• Pilgrimage: While both groups revere Mecca and Medina, Shias also place great importance on visiting the shrines of Imams, such as those in Najaf and Karbala.

Sociopolitical Implications

The Sunni-Shia divide has not remained purely theological but has influenced global politics and conflicts throughout history. Countries like Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Lebanon have witnessed sectarian tensions that have shaped political alliances and conflicts. Sunni-majority nations such as Saudi Arabia often align against Shia-majority Iran, exacerbating regional rivalries.

In modern times, sectarian conflicts in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen have reinforced the perception that Sunnism and Shiism operate as distinct religious entities rather than simply branches of the same faith.

Conclusion: Separate Religions or One Faith?

While Sunnism and Shiism share foundational beliefs, their differences in theology, authority, rituals, and political structures have led some scholars to argue that they function as separate religions. The divergence in religious leadership, sacred traditions, and communal identity suggests that the gap between the two is more than just a sectarian divide. Whether seen as two distinct religions or as deeply divided sects within Islam, the Sunni-Shia split remains one of the most defining features of the Muslim world.

Kitab Al-Kafi: The Foundation of Shia Hadith Literature

Kitab al-Kafi (The Sufficient Book), compiled by Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Ya‘qub al-Kulaini (d. 941 CE), is one of the most important works in Shia Islam. It stands as the most authoritative collection of hadiths (traditions and sayings) for Twelver Shia Muslims, much like Sahih al-Bukhari is for Sunni Islam. Divided into three major sections, Kitab al-Kafi is a vast compilation of traditions covering theology, jurisprudence, ethics, and more. It is highly regarded for its comprehensiveness and depth, making it a cornerstone of Shia scholarship.

This article delves into the origins, structure, significance, and controversies surrounding Kitab al-Kafi, as well as its lasting influence on Shia Islam.

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The Life of Al-Kulaini

Before exploring the book itself, it is essential to understand the life and background of its compiler, Al-Kulaini. He was born around 864 CE in the village of Kulain, near Rey (modern-day Tehran, Iran), during a tumultuous period in Islamic history. This was the era of the Occultation (Ghaybah) of the Twelfth Imam, a pivotal event for Twelver Shia Muslims.

Al-Kulaini lived during the Minor Occultation (872–941 CE), a time when the Twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was believed to be in hiding but still communicating with his followers through a network of representatives. This historical context influenced Al-Kulaini’s mission to collect and preserve the sayings of the Imams to provide guidance to the Shia community in the absence of direct leadership.

Trained in hadith sciences and theology, Al-Kulaini traveled extensively, gathering traditions from scholars in cities such as Baghdad and Qom. His compilation, Kitab al-Kafi, became his life’s masterpiece and the most significant work of Shia hadith literature.

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Structure and Content of Kitab al-Kafi

Kitab al-Kafi is organized into three main sections:

1. Usul al-Kafi (The Principles of al-Kafi) – This section deals with fundamental beliefs and theology, including discussions on tawhid (the oneness of God), divine attributes, prophecy, the Imamate, and the afterlife. It provides the foundation for understanding Shia doctrine and is crucial for shaping the theological framework of Twelver Shiism.

2. Furu‘ al-Kafi (The Branches of al-Kafi) – This section focuses on practical matters of Islamic law (fiqh), covering ritual practices such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, and social conduct. It serves as a guide for Shia Muslims in their daily lives and religious observances.

3. Rawdat al-Kafi (The Garden of al-Kafi) – The final section is a collection of miscellaneous traditions, including historical narratives, ethical teachings, and spiritual insights. This section is less systematically organized but provides valuable moral and spiritual guidance.

Kitab al-Kafi contains over 16,000 hadiths, carefully selected by Al-Kulaini from a vast pool of traditions. Each hadith is accompanied by a chain of transmission (isnad) to verify its authenticity.

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Significance and Authority

For Twelver Shia Muslims, Kitab al-Kafi holds a position of unparalleled importance. It is one of the "Four Books" of Shia hadith literature, alongside Man la Yahduruhu al-Faqih by Ibn Babawayh, Tahdhib al-Ahkam, and al-Istibsar by Shaykh al-Tusi. While Sunni Muslims rely on collections such as Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, Shia Muslims turn to Kitab al-Kafi for guidance on religious beliefs and practices.

One of the unique aspects of Kitab al-Kafi is its emphasis on the Imamate—the belief that the Imams from the lineage of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Fatimah (the daughter of Prophet Muhammad) are divinely appointed leaders with special spiritual and religious authority. Al-Kulaini compiled numerous traditions that underscore the Imams' role as the rightful successors to the Prophet and the primary sources of religious knowledge.

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Authenticity and Grading of Hadiths

While Kitab al-Kafi is highly respected, Shia scholars have always been cautious in assessing the authenticity of its hadiths. Unlike some Sunni scholars who regard collections like Sahih al-Bukhari as entirely authentic, Shia scholars do not consider every hadith in Kitab al-Kafi to be reliable.

Over the centuries, prominent Shia scholars have graded the hadiths in Kitab al-Kafi based on their chains of transmission and content. These grades range from sahih (authentic) to da‘if (weak). The process of verifying hadiths involves scrutinizing the narrators' reliability, consistency, and alignment with established teachings of the Qur'an and the Imams.

Al-Majlisi (d. 1699 CE), a renowned Shia scholar, categorized the hadiths in Kitab al-Kafi in his monumental work, Bihar al-Anwar, identifying which ones are reliable and which should be approached with caution.

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Influence on Shia Thought and Practice

Kitab al-Kafi has profoundly shaped the development of Shia theology, jurisprudence, and ethics. Its emphasis on the Imamate, divine justice, and esoteric knowledge has become central to Shia identity.

In theology, the book provides key insights into Shia beliefs about God’s nature, human destiny, and the spiritual status of the Imams. It also highlights the importance of knowledge (‘ilm) and rational inquiry, encouraging believers to seek wisdom and understanding.

In jurisprudence, Kitab al-Kafi serves as a foundational text for Shia legal scholars. Many rulings in Shia Islamic law are based on the hadiths found within its pages. For everyday Muslims, it offers practical guidance on living an ethical life in accordance with Islamic principles.

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Controversies and Criticisms

Despite its revered status, Kitab al-Kafi has not been immune to criticism. Some Sunni scholars have questioned the authenticity of its hadiths and accused Al-Kulaini of promoting sectarian views. They argue that certain traditions in the book contradict the broader Islamic consensus.

Within the Shia community, debates continue over the reliability of specific hadiths and their implications for doctrine and practice. Modern Shia scholars often approach Kitab al-Kafi with a critical eye, balancing respect for its historical importance with the need for rigorous scholarship.

One area of controversy is the ghulat (extremist) traditions—narrations that attribute supernatural or quasi-divine characteristics to the Imams. While some scholars have rejected these hadiths outright, others interpret them metaphorically or within the context of Shia mysticism.

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Conclusion

Kitab al-Kafi stands as a monumental work in the history of Islamic thought. Compiled by Al-Kulaini during a pivotal era for the Shia community, it offers a comprehensive collection of traditions that continue to guide millions of believers worldwide.

While debates over its authenticity and interpretation persist, there is no denying the profound influence of Kitab al-Kafi on Shia theology, law, and spirituality. For anyone seeking to understand the foundations of Twelver Shiism, Kitab al-Kafi is an indispensable resource—a bridge to the teachings of the Imams and a testament to the rich intellectual heritage of Shia Islam.

Genesis and Evolution of Shia and Shi’ism by Ehsan Elahi Zaheer: An Overview

Genesis and Evolution of Shia and Shi’ism by Ehsan Elahi Zaheer is a critical work that delves into the origins and development of Shi’ism within Islamic history. Zaheer, a Pakistani scholar and theologian known for his critical stance on various Islamic sects, presents an in-depth analysis of how Shi’ism evolved over time. His work primarily addresses the theological, political, and historical factors that shaped the Shia identity and how it diverged from mainstream Sunni Islam. While his book is highly detailed, it is also controversial due to its polemical tone and strong criticisms of Shia beliefs and practices.

In this article, we will explore the key arguments in Zaheer’s Genesis and Evolution of Shia and Shi’ism, focusing on his views on the historical roots of Shi’ism, its doctrinal development, and his critique of Shia theology.

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Historical Context: The Origins of Shi’ism

Zaheer begins by providing a historical overview of the early Islamic community after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE. According to Zaheer, Shi’ism did not originate as a distinct religious sect but rather as a political movement centered around the question of succession. The core dispute was over who should lead the Muslim community—should it be chosen through consensus, as the Sunnis believed, or should it remain within the family of the Prophet, as the Shia argued?

The Shia position coalesced around the figure of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law. While Ali was eventually appointed as the fourth caliph, his rule was marked by significant conflict and civil war, particularly with figures like Muawiyah, the governor of Syria. Ali’s assassination and the subsequent martyrdom of his son, Hussein, at the Battle of Karbala in 680 CE became defining moments for the Shia community. Zaheer emphasizes that these events were pivotal in transforming Shi’ism from a political movement into a distinct religious identity.

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Doctrinal Development of Shi’ism

Zaheer argues that the evolution of Shia theology was heavily influenced by external factors and non-Islamic ideas. He contends that early Shia beliefs were shaped by Persian, Jewish, and Christian theological concepts, which were later integrated into their doctrines. According to Zaheer, this blending of ideas contributed to the development of unique Shia doctrines that diverged from Sunni orthodoxy.

1. Imamate

One of the central themes in Zaheer’s critique is the Shia concept of the Imamate. In Shia Islam, the Imams are seen as divinely appointed leaders who possess special spiritual and political authority. They are believed to be infallible and have a unique connection to God. Zaheer sees this doctrine as a significant departure from mainstream Islamic teachings.

Zaheer argues that the concept of the Imamate has no basis in the Qur'an or the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad. Instead, he claims that it was a later development, influenced by political and theological struggles within the Muslim community. He criticizes the Shia view of the Imams as semi-divine figures, suggesting that this belief undermines the core Islamic principle of monotheism (Tawhid).

2. Doctrine of Occultation

Another doctrine that Zaheer critiques is the Shia belief in the occultation (ghayba) of the twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. According to Shia tradition, this Imam went into hiding in the 9th century and will return as the Mahdi, a messianic figure who will establish justice on earth.

Zaheer views this belief as a later theological innovation designed to address the absence of a living Imam. He argues that the doctrine of occultation lacks historical evidence and is rooted in apocalyptic and messianic ideas borrowed from other religious traditions.

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Shia-Sunni Relations and Sectarianism

A significant portion of Zaheer’s work focuses on the historical tensions between Shia and Sunni Muslims. He traces the origins of sectarianism to political conflicts that were later given religious justification. Zaheer is particularly critical of how some Shia factions have historically vilified certain companions of the Prophet, such as Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, who are highly revered in Sunni Islam.

Zaheer contends that these early political disputes were exaggerated and theologized over time, leading to a permanent division within the Muslim community. He accuses Shia scholars of distorting historical events to legitimize their theological positions. In his view, this sectarian division has caused significant harm to the unity of the Muslim ummah (community).

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Influence of Persian Culture

One of Zaheer’s more controversial arguments is his claim that Shi’ism was heavily influenced by Persian cultural and political aspirations. He asserts that after the fall of the Persian Empire to Muslim forces, some Persians sought to preserve their identity and resist Arab dominance by promoting Shia beliefs.

Zaheer suggests that this Persian influence shaped key aspects of Shia theology, particularly its emphasis on the martyrdom of Hussein and the concept of a hidden Imam. He sees these ideas as reflective of pre-Islamic Persian religious traditions, which emphasized divine kingship and the struggle between good and evil.

While this argument is often criticized for being overly simplistic, it reflects a broader narrative in Sunni polemical literature that views Shi’ism as an external innovation rather than an organic development within Islam.

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Zaheer’s Critique of Shia Practices

In addition to his theological critiques, Zaheer also addresses various Shia rituals and practices that he views as un-Islamic innovations. Among these are the commemoration of Ashura, the annual mourning ceremony for Imam Hussein, and practices such as self-flagellation and symbolic reenactments of the Battle of Karbala.

Zaheer sees these rituals as excessive and argues that they focus too heavily on grief and martyrdom at the expense of more fundamental Islamic teachings. He also criticizes the veneration of shrines and the seeking of intercession through the Imams, viewing these practices as forms of shirk (associating partners with God).

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Reception and Criticism of Zaheer’s Work

Genesis and Evolution of Shia and Shi’ism has been both influential and controversial. Zaheer’s detailed historical analysis and polemical style have made the book popular among certain Sunni circles, particularly those with a critical stance toward Shia Islam. However, his work has also faced significant criticism from Shia scholars and more moderate voices within the Muslim community.

Critics argue that Zaheer’s work is overly biased and fails to engage with Shia theology on its own terms. They accuse him of relying on selective historical sources and presenting a one-sided narrative that ignores the diversity and complexity of Shia thought.

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Conclusion

Genesis and Evolution of Shia and Shi’ism by Ehsan Elahi Zaheer offers a detailed and polemical account of the origins and development of Shi’ism. While the book provides valuable insights into the historical and theological evolution of Shia Islam, it is also a deeply controversial work that reflects the ongoing tensions between Shia and Sunni communities.

Zaheer’s central argument is that Shi’ism originated as a political movement that gradually evolved into a distinct religious identity through external influences and theological innovations. His critique of Shia doctrines, particularly the concept of the Imamate and the doctrine of occultation, highlights the fundamental differences between Shia and Sunni Islam.

For readers interested in the history of Islamic sectarianism, Zaheer’s work is an important but highly polemical resource. Understanding its arguments requires careful consideration of both its scholarly contributions and its limitations.

Resource:

Genesis and Evolution of Shia and Shi’ism by Ehsan Elahi Zaheer

Who was Ayatollah Montazeri?

Introduction

Ayatollah Hossein Ali Montazeri was one of the most influential and controversial figures in modern Iranian history. A leading Shi'a scholar, he played a key role in shaping the ideology of the Islamic Republic of Iran but later became one of its fiercest critics. Montazeri's life reflects the complexities of Iran’s political and religious landscape, as he transitioned from being a close ally of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini to a vocal dissident advocating for democracy and human rights. This article explores Montazeri’s early life, his rise to prominence, his fall from power, and his enduring legacy.

Early Life and Religious Education

Born in 1922 in Najafabad, a town in the central Iranian province of Isfahan, Hossein Ali Montazeri grew up in a devout family. From an early age, he displayed a keen interest in Islamic studies, and he eventually moved to the religious city of Qom, where he studied under some of the most prominent clerics of the time, including Ayatollah Khomeini.

Montazeri quickly gained recognition as a brilliant student of Islamic jurisprudence, earning the title of Grand Ayatollah. His association with Khomeini during the 1960s and 1970s positioned him as a leading voice in the struggle against the Shah’s regime, which was widely seen as oppressive and aligned with Western interests.

Role in the Iranian Revolution

Montazeri was a crucial figure in the 1979 Iranian Revolution that led to the overthrow of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi and the establishment of the Islamic Republic. He was one of Khomeini’s closest confidants and played an instrumental role in drafting the new constitution, which enshrined the principle of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Jurist). This doctrine granted ultimate authority to a supreme religious leader—a position that Khomeini would assume.

As a reward for his loyalty and intellectual contributions, Montazeri was designated as Khomeini’s successor in 1985, positioning him as the future Supreme Leader of Iran. At that time, he was considered one of the most powerful clerics in the country.

Fall from Power

Despite his prominence, Montazeri’s relationship with Khomeini and the ruling establishment deteriorated in the late 1980s. He became increasingly critical of human rights abuses, particularly the mass executions of political prisoners in 1988. His outspoken opposition to these executions placed him at odds with Khomeini and the hardliners within the government.

In March 1989, just months before Khomeini’s death, Montazeri was officially removed as the designated successor. His criticisms of government policies, including his belief that the Islamic Republic was straying from its original revolutionary ideals, led to his marginalization. After Khomeini’s death, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei was chosen as Supreme Leader instead, despite having significantly less religious authority than Montazeri.

Years of Dissent and House Arrest

Following his removal from power, Montazeri continued to be an outspoken critic of the Iranian government. He consistently advocated for greater political freedoms, respect for human rights, and a less repressive interpretation of Islamic governance. His public statements and writings challenged the legitimacy of the Supreme Leader’s absolute authority.

As a result of his defiance, Montazeri was placed under house arrest in 1997, a confinement that lasted until 2003. Even after his release, he remained an influential dissident voice, especially during the 2009 Green Movement, which emerged in response to disputed presidential elections. His criticisms of the government’s repression of protesters further cemented his status as a symbol of resistance within Iran.

Legacy and Influence

Ayatollah Montazeri passed away on December 19, 2009, at the age of 87. His funeral in Qom was attended by thousands of supporters, turning into a demonstration against the Iranian government. Despite his official marginalization, Montazeri’s teachings and writings continue to inspire reformists and advocates for democracy within Iran and among the Iranian diaspora.

His legacy remains complex: while he was instrumental in establishing the Islamic Republic, he later became its most prominent critic. His advocacy for a more just and humane interpretation of Islamic governance challenges the authoritarian structure of Iran’s current political system. As such, Montazeri is remembered as both an architect of the revolution and a symbol of its betrayed ideals.

Conclusion

Ayatollah Hossein Ali Montazeri’s life was marked by paradoxes. He was a revolutionary who helped create the Islamic Republic but later denounced its leadership for deviating from Islamic justice and human rights. His courage to stand against oppression, even at great personal cost, solidified his legacy as one of Iran’s most significant and enduring voices for reform. Though he never saw the democratic changes he envisioned, his ideas continue to resonate with those seeking a more open and just Iran.

Who is Ayatollah Al-Sistani?

Ayatollah Sayyid Ali al-Husseini al-Sistani is one of the most influential and revered figures in contemporary Shia Islam and the Islamic world at large. Born on August 4, 1930, in Mashhad, Iran, he has served as the preeminent Grand Ayatollah of Najaf, Iraq, since the late 20th century. His life, teachings, and political influence have profoundly shaped Shia theology, Iraqi politics, and global Islamic thought. This article delves into his early life, religious education, rise to prominence, and his pivotal role in Iraq and beyond.

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Early Life and Education

Ali al-Sistani was born into a devout Shia Muslim family in Mashhad, a city known for the shrine of Imam Reza, the eighth Shia Imam. His family traces its lineage back to the Prophet Muhammad through Imam Musa al-Kadhim, the seventh Shia Imam. This noble lineage earned the family the title "Sayyid."

From a young age, Sistani displayed a remarkable aptitude for religious studies. He began his education in Mashhad, studying under prominent scholars and mastering foundational Islamic sciences such as Quranic interpretation, jurisprudence (fiqh), and theology (‘aqidah). In 1949, at the age of 19, he moved to Qom, Iran, to further his studies under the tutelage of Ayatollah Hossein Borujerdi, one of the leading Shia scholars of the time.

In 1951, Sistani relocated to Najaf, Iraq, a city that holds immense significance for Shia Muslims as the burial place of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Shia Imam and cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. There, he studied under the renowned Grand Ayatollah Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei, whose intellectual and spiritual influence profoundly shaped Sistani’s scholarly development. Sistani excelled in his studies and quickly rose through the ranks of the hawza (Shia seminary).

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Rise to Prominence

After the death of Ayatollah al-Khoei in 1992, Sistani emerged as his natural successor, becoming the Grand Ayatollah of Najaf and the spiritual leader of millions of Shia Muslims worldwide. As a marja‘ al-taqlid (source of emulation), Sistani holds the highest authority in Shia jurisprudence. His followers look to him for guidance on religious, social, and even political matters.

Sistani’s leadership style is characterized by pragmatism, a focus on traditional Shia values, and a preference for quiet diplomacy over overt political engagement. Unlike Iran’s Ayatollah Khomeini, who advocated for the direct rule of clergy through the concept of Wilayat al-Faqih (Guardianship of the Jurist), Sistani believes in a more limited role for religious authorities in governance. He advocates for a system where clerics provide moral and ethical guidance while leaving the day-to-day administration to elected officials.

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Role in Post-2003 Iraq

The U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 marked a turning point for Ayatollah Sistani’s role in global politics. As Iraq descended into chaos following the fall of Saddam Hussein’s regime, Sistani emerged as a stabilizing force. His calls for unity, patience, and peaceful resistance played a crucial role in preventing widespread sectarian violence.

Key Contributions:

1. Drafting the Iraqi Constitution: Sistani insisted on an inclusive, democratic process for drafting Iraq’s new constitution. He urged Shia leaders to participate in elections and pushed for the establishment of a parliamentary system.

2. Opposition to Sectarianism: During the height of Sunni-Shia tensions, Sistani consistently condemned violence and called for coexistence. His fatwas emphasized the sanctity of all Muslim lives, regardless of sectarian affiliation.

3. Mobilizing Against ISIS: In 2014, when the Islamic State (ISIS) overran large parts of Iraq, Sistani issued a historic fatwa calling on Iraqis to take up arms to defend their country. This led to the formation of the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF), a coalition of militias that played a key role in defeating ISIS.

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Theological Contributions

As a scholar, Sistani has made significant contributions to Shia jurisprudence and theology. His works cover a wide range of topics, from the principles of Islamic jurisprudence (usul al-fiqh) to social ethics and contemporary issues. His rulings emphasize moderation, adaptability, and the importance of context in applying Islamic law.

One of his notable contributions is his focus on the concept of "maslahat" (public interest). Sistani argues that Islamic rulings should prioritize the welfare of the community and adapt to changing circumstances. This approach has allowed him to address modern challenges while remaining rooted in traditional Shia teachings.

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Humanitarian Efforts

Sistani’s influence extends beyond religious and political realms. He is deeply committed to humanitarian causes, using his vast network of followers and financial resources to support the poor and vulnerable. His office funds numerous charitable projects, including schools, hospitals, and orphanages, across Iraq and other Shia-majority regions.

During crises such as the displacement of millions of Iraqis by ISIS, Sistani’s charitable initiatives provided vital assistance, including food, shelter, and medical care. His humanitarian efforts have earned him respect not only among Shia Muslims but also from people of other faiths and communities.

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Controversies and Criticisms

Despite his widespread acclaim, Ayatollah Sistani has faced criticism from various quarters. Some hardline Shia groups accuse him of being too passive in the face of injustices, while Sunni extremists view him as a divisive figure. Additionally, his refusal to endorse the concept of Wilayat al-Faqih has drawn criticism from pro-Iranian factions within the Shia community.

Nevertheless, Sistani’s commitment to peace and his rejection of sectarianism have helped him maintain his status as a unifying figure in Iraq and the broader Islamic world.

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Legacy and Global Impact

Ayatollah Sistani’s influence extends far beyond Iraq. As the leader of the Najaf seminary, he serves as a spiritual guide for millions of Shia Muslims worldwide. His teachings have shaped the theological landscape of Shia Islam and provided a counterbalance to the more politicized approach of Iran’s religious establishment.

In 2021, Sistani met with Pope Francis in a historic interfaith dialogue that underscored his commitment to fostering understanding and cooperation between religions. The meeting, held in Najaf, highlighted Sistani’s role as a global advocate for peace and coexistence.

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Conclusion

Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani is a towering figure in the modern Islamic world. His life and work embody the principles of wisdom, compassion, and steadfastness in the face of adversity. Through his scholarship, leadership, and humanitarian efforts, he has left an indelible mark on Shia Islam and global politics. As Iraq and the broader Middle East navigate complex challenges, Sistani’s teachings and example continue to serve as a beacon of hope and guidance for millions.

The Mirage in Iran by Ahmad Al-Afghani

Introduction

"The Mirage in Iran" (originally titled "Sarab fee Iran") is a seminal work by Dr. Ahmad al-Afghani, first published in 1982. The book was later translated into English by Dr. Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, making its critical perspectives accessible to a broader audience. This work delves into the historical and theological roles of the Shiite sect within the Islamic world, offering a Sunni viewpoint on Shiite doctrines and their implications.

Historical Context

Dr. al-Afghani's analysis is rooted in a historical examination of the Shiite sect's emergence and evolution. He discusses pivotal events, such as the succession disputes following Prophet Muhammad's death, which led to the Sunni-Shiite schism. The author contends that throughout Islamic history, certain Shiite factions have engaged in actions detrimental to the unity and stability of the Muslim Ummah. By highlighting these events, Dr. al-Afghani aims to underscore the complexities and challenges posed by sectarian divisions within Islam.

Theological Critique

Central to "The Mirage in Iran" is a critique of Shiite theological doctrines. Dr. al-Afghani examines beliefs such as the infallibility of the Imams, the concept of Taqiyyah (religious dissimulation), and the practice of temporary marriage (Mut'ah). He argues that these doctrines diverge from mainstream Sunni interpretations of Islam. For instance, the attribution of infallibility to Imams is seen as conflicting with the Sunni emphasis on the finality and completeness of Prophet Muhammad's prophethood. By dissecting these theological differences, the author seeks to highlight what he perceives as deviations from orthodox Islamic teachings.

Shiite Influence in Iran

The book pays particular attention to Iran, especially in the context of the 1979 Islamic Revolution led by Ayatollah Khomeini. Dr. al-Afghani discusses how Shiite ideology became intertwined with the state's political framework, leading to the establishment of a theocratic regime. He expresses concerns about the exportation of this revolutionary Shiite ideology to other parts of the Muslim world, viewing it as a potential source of discord and division among Muslim communities. The author warns against the politicization of religious beliefs, suggesting that it can lead to authoritarianism and sectarian strife.

Scholarly Perspectives

Dr. al-Afghani references both classical and contemporary Sunni scholars to support his critiques of Shiite doctrines. He cites historical fatwas and writings that have addressed the Sunni stance on Shiite beliefs and practices. By doing so, he situates his arguments within a broader scholarly tradition, aiming to provide a comprehensive Sunni perspective on the issues at hand. This approach lends weight to his critiques, as it aligns them with established scholarly opinions and interpretations.

Contemporary Relevance

While "The Mirage in Iran" was written in the early 1980s, its themes remain pertinent today. The Sunni-Shiite divide continues to influence geopolitical dynamics in the Middle East and beyond. Dr. al-Afghani's work serves as a reminder of the importance of intra-faith dialogue and understanding. By critically examining doctrinal differences, the book encourages readers to engage in informed discussions aimed at fostering unity and mutual respect among Muslims. In an era where sectarian conflicts persist, such scholarly contributions are invaluable for promoting peace and cohesion within the global Muslim community.

Conclusion

"The Mirage in Iran" by Dr. Ahmad al-Afghani offers a critical Sunni perspective on Shiite history and theology. Through meticulous analysis, the author highlights the complexities and challenges posed by sectarian divisions within Islam. The book serves as both a historical account and a theological critique, urging readers to reflect on the implications of doctrinal differences for the unity of the Muslim Ummah. As such, it remains a significant contribution to Islamic scholarship and a valuable resource for those seeking to understand the nuances of Sunni-Shiite relations.

Shia Islam Existed Initially to Support Calipah Ali Before Many of Ali's Supporters Became Kharijites

The origins of Shia Islam are deeply intertwined with the early political and theological struggles that emerged in the wake of the Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. Central to these struggles was the contentious question of leadership and rightful succession in the nascent Muslim community. While Shia Islam eventually evolved into a distinct branch of Islam with its own rich theological and legal traditions, its roots lie in the political movement that coalesced around Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet. This article explores how Shia Islam initially emerged to support Ali's claim to leadership and how this movement faced fragmentation, giving rise to groups such as the Kharijites.

The Context of Succession Disputes

Upon the death of Prophet Muhammad, the Muslim community faced the pressing issue of leadership. The Prophet had not left explicit instructions regarding his successor, leading to disagreements among his followers. While a majority of Muslims accepted Abu Bakr, a close companion of the Prophet, as the first caliph, a faction believed that Ali, as a member of the Prophet’s family and a man of exceptional piety and knowledge, was the rightful leader. This faction emphasized Ali’s close kinship with the Prophet and his spiritual qualities, laying the groundwork for what would later develop into Shia Islam.

This initial support for Ali, however, did not yet constitute a formal religious sect. Rather, it was a political movement advocating for what its adherents saw as the just and rightful leadership of the Muslim community. During the caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, Ali’s supporters remained relatively quiet, though they harbored grievances over what they perceived as the marginalization of the Prophet’s family.

Ali’s Caliphate and the Emergence of Factionalism

Ali’s ascension to the caliphate in 656 CE, following the assassination of the third caliph, Uthman, marked a pivotal moment. Ali’s rule was immediately contested by powerful figures, including Aisha (the Prophet’s widow) and Muawiya, the governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman. These disputes led to a series of civil wars known as the First Fitna (Islamic civil war).

Ali’s supporters, who rallied around his cause during this turbulent period, began to articulate arguments for his leadership based on both political and religious principles. They viewed Ali as the most qualified leader due to his proximity to the Prophet, his deep knowledge of Islam, and his moral integrity. These principles would later form the basis of Shia theology, particularly the belief in the imamate—the idea that legitimate leaders must be divinely chosen and possess both spiritual and temporal authority.

The Rise of the Kharijites

One of the most significant challenges to Ali’s leadership came not from his external enemies but from within his own camp. The turning point was the Battle of Siffin (657 CE), where Ali’s forces clashed with those of Muawiya. The battle ended in a stalemate, and both sides agreed to arbitration to resolve the conflict. This decision angered a faction of Ali’s supporters, who believed that arbitration was tantamount to subordinating divine judgment to human decision-making.

These dissenters, known as the Kharijites (from the Arabic “khawarij,” meaning “those who go out”), broke away from Ali’s camp. They argued that leadership should not be based on lineage or tribal affiliation but on piety and adherence to Islamic principles. The Kharijites declared that anyone who committed a major sin or failed to uphold divine law was unfit to rule, regardless of their status. This radical egalitarianism set them apart not only from Ali’s followers but also from the emerging Sunni majority.

The Kharijites’ rebellion culminated in a series of violent confrontations with Ali’s forces. While Ali managed to suppress their uprisings temporarily, the Kharijites’ assassination of Ali in 661 CE marked a tragic end to his caliphate and further fragmented the Muslim community.

The Development of Shia Identity

With Ali’s death, his supporters faced a crisis of leadership. Many transferred their allegiance to his sons, Hasan and later Husayn, whom they regarded as the rightful heirs to Ali’s legacy. This dynastic focus became a defining feature of Shia Islam, which holds that leadership must remain within the Prophet’s family, specifically through Ali and his descendants.

The tragedy of Karbala in 680 CE, where Husayn and his followers were martyred by the forces of the Umayyad caliph Yazid, became a central event in Shia consciousness. The memory of Karbala solidified the Shia identity as a community of resistance against injustice and tyranny. It also deepened the theological divide between Shia and Sunni Islam, as Shia Muslims began to emphasize themes of martyrdom, divine justice, and the redemptive suffering of the imams.

Theological Divergences

While the early Shia movement was primarily political, it gradually developed distinct theological doctrines. Central to Shia belief is the concept of the imamate, which holds that imams are divinely appointed leaders endowed with special knowledge (‘ilm) and spiritual authority. This contrasts with Sunni Islam, which emphasizes the consensus (‘ijma’) of the community and the qualifications of leaders based on their ability to govern effectively and uphold Islamic law.

The Kharijites, in contrast, rejected the notion of hereditary leadership altogether. They insisted that any Muslim, regardless of lineage, could become a leader if they demonstrated piety and adherence to Islamic principles. This strict meritocracy and their uncompromising stance on sin and governance alienated them from both Sunni and Shia Muslims, leading to their marginalization in Islamic history.

Legacy and Impact

The early struggles over Ali’s leadership and the subsequent fragmentation of his supporters had profound implications for Islamic history. The Shia and Kharijite movements, though originating from a shared allegiance to Ali, took radically different paths. While the Shia developed into a major branch of Islam with a sophisticated theological and legal tradition, the Kharijites remained a fringe group, often associated with militancy and radicalism.

The legacy of these early divisions continues to shape the Muslim world. For Shia Muslims, Ali represents the epitome of just and divinely guided leadership, and his memory is celebrated with reverence. The Kharijites, though largely a historical phenomenon, serve as a cautionary tale about the dangers of extremism and schism.

Conclusion

Shia Islam’s origins as a political movement supporting Ali ibn Abi Talib highlight the complex interplay between politics and religion in early Islamic history. While initially united in their advocacy for Ali, his supporters faced internal divisions that gave rise to the Kharijites and other factions. These divisions underscore the diversity of thought and the contested nature of authority in the early Muslim community. Over time, the Shia developed a distinct identity centered on the imamate and the legacy of Ali and his family, while the Kharijites left an indelible mark as early advocates of egalitarian and uncompromising principles of leadership. Together, these movements illustrate the enduring impact of the early struggles over leadership and legitimacy in shaping the Islamic tradition.

Ayatollah Khomeini and His Agenda to Dominate All Muslim Countries

The Iranian Revolution of 1979, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, marked a profound shift in the political and religious landscape of the Middle East. Khomeini, a Shiite cleric, managed to overthrow the Pahlavi monarchy in Iran and establish the Islamic Republic of Iran, fundamentally altering the region's dynamics. However, his ambitions extended far beyond merely governing Iran. Khomeini sought to reshape the Muslim world according to his vision of Islamic governance, and in doing so, he articulated an agenda that aimed to dominate not only Iran but also influence and, in some cases, control other Muslim countries. This article explores Khomeini's ideological foundations, his strategies for advancing his vision, and the impact of his actions on the wider Muslim world.

The Rise of Khomeini

Born in 1902 in the town of Khomein, Iran, Ruhollah Khomeini was raised in a family of clerics. He became an influential religious scholar and was known for his sharp critiques of the Pahlavi regime, which he saw as corrupt, Westernized, and oppressive to Islam. Khomeini’s ideology combined traditional Shiite teachings with a more radical, politicized view of Islam. He argued that Islam was not just a set of religious principles but also a comprehensive political system that should govern all aspects of life. His most significant contribution to Islamic political thought was the concept of Wilayat al-Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist), which he argued justified the rule of a leading Islamic scholar over the state.

Khomeini’s views placed him in direct opposition to the secular nature of the Pahlavi monarchy. After leading a campaign of protests, strikes, and civil disobedience, Khomeini succeeded in toppling the Shah in February 1979, returning to Iran from exile and assuming control of the country. His vision was clear: an Iran governed by Islamic law, with clerical authority at its helm.

Khomeini’s Vision for an Islamic World

Khomeini’s vision was not limited to the borders of Iran. He was determined to spread his radical interpretation of Islam throughout the Muslim world, particularly to countries with significant Shiite populations. At the heart of his agenda was the idea of an Islamic resurgence—a movement to restore Islam’s political dominance in a world where, according to Khomeini, it had been overshadowed by Western imperialism and secularism.

Khomeini’s ultimate goal was to unite all Muslim countries under a single, Islamic framework, governed by Islamic law (Sharia), and under the leadership of Islamic scholars who would embody the principles of Wilayat al-Faqih. He believed that Islamic unity could only be achieved through the removal of foreign influences and the overthrow of secular regimes that were allied with the West. This vision of Islamic unity was ideological, but it was also political and practical, based on his understanding of Islam as both a spiritual and temporal power.

The Strategy for Domination: Revolutionary Export

One of Khomeini’s most significant strategies for achieving his goal of Muslim domination was the export of the Iranian Revolution. Iran, under Khomeini’s leadership, would serve as a model for other Muslim nations. He envisioned Iran as the leader of a global Islamic movement, and he encouraged other nations to adopt a political system based on Wilayat al-Faqih. Khomeini’s rhetoric was not just theoretical but also deeply practical. He sought to create alliances with other revolutionary movements, especially those in Shiite-majority countries such as Iraq, Lebanon, and Bahrain.

The Islamic Revolution in Iran provided Khomeini with the opportunity to send his message abroad, and he used the country’s new political and diplomatic influence to fund and support insurgencies in countries he believed could be transformed into Islamic republics. One of the most significant efforts in this regard was the establishment of Hezbollah in Lebanon in the early 1980s. Hezbollah, an Iran-backed Shiite militant group, became a powerful force in Lebanon and was a manifestation of Khomeini’s vision of exporting revolution through support for armed struggle.

Khomeini also attempted to infiltrate other countries through more subtle means. He used Iran’s wealth, gained largely through oil exports, to fund religious schools and charities in places like Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the Gulf states, which would spread his ideological agenda and foster a generation of radical clerics. This strategy aimed not just at spreading religious influence but also at creating networks of loyalists who could challenge secular governments and promote Khomeini’s political goals.

Challenges to Khomeini’s Vision

While Khomeini was a charismatic leader with a grand vision for the Muslim world, his agenda faced significant challenges. Not all Muslims accepted his version of Islam or his political authority. The Sunni-Shia divide, which has been a source of tension in the Islamic world for centuries, was one of the greatest obstacles to Khomeini’s agenda.

In Sunni-majority countries like Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Pakistan, Khomeini’s ideology was seen as a threat to the established order. These countries were skeptical of his claims to Islamic leadership, and Khomeini’s efforts to subvert their political systems were met with resistance. For instance, the Iranian Revolution inspired some Shiite communities in countries like Iraq and Bahrain, but it was also seen as a destabilizing force by Sunni-majority governments. Khomeini’s efforts to export his revolution also led to tensions with the West and with other Muslim nations, many of whom viewed Iran as a destabilizing influence in the region.

In Iraq, for example, Khomeini’s call for Shiite revolutionaries to rise against the secular Ba’athist regime was not well received. Iraq’s dictator, Saddam Hussein, saw Khomeini’s influence as a direct threat and responded by launching the Iran-Iraq War in 1980. This brutal conflict lasted for eight years and resulted in heavy casualties on both sides but failed to achieve Khomeini’s ultimate goal of spreading the revolution.

Additionally, Khomeini’s reliance on militant proxies and revolutionary methods led to widespread instability in the region. His support for Hezbollah in Lebanon, while successful in the short term, contributed to long-term regional conflict, and his efforts to spread his ideology also fueled sectarian violence in places like Iraq, where tensions between Sunni and Shiite groups have persisted.

Legacy and Impact on the Muslim World

Although Khomeini’s efforts to dominate all Muslim countries met with limited success, his influence on the Muslim world cannot be understated. His idea of Wilayat al-Faqih remains central to Iranian politics, with the position of Supreme Leader continuing to wield immense power. Khomeini’s revolution also sparked the rise of political Islam as a global force, inspiring movements such as the Islamic Salvation Front in Algeria, the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, and the Taliban in Afghanistan. These groups, however, have often diverged from Khomeini’s vision, reflecting the diversity of Islamic political thought.

In many ways, Khomeini’s legacy is one of polarization and division. While some Shiite communities continue to revere him as a visionary leader, many Sunni-majority countries view his legacy with suspicion and fear. The geopolitical tensions that emerged from his revolutionary agenda continue to shape the politics of the Middle East today.

Khomeini’s attempts to dominate the Muslim world through his revolutionary ideals and the export of the Iranian revolution were, in many ways, a precursor to the broader ideological and sectarian conflicts that would characterize much of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. His vision of an Islamic world governed by religious scholars remains a powerful force in Iran, but it has also contributed to ongoing conflicts and power struggles in the wider Muslim world.

Conclusion

Ayatollah Khomeini’s ambition to dominate all Muslim countries was driven by a deep belief in the superiority of his vision for Islamic governance. While his efforts to export revolution met with mixed results, the political and ideological impact of his ideas continues to resonate across the Middle East and beyond. His legacy is one of religious and political upheaval, and his vision of an Islamic world united under the banner of Wilayat al-Faqih remains a point of contention within Islam to this day.

Ayatollah Khomeini and His Agenda to Dominate Makkah and Madinah

The political and religious landscape of the Middle East underwent profound changes with the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the revolutionary leader of the movement, became the Supreme Leader of Iran, steering the country into an era of Islamic governance based on his interpretation of Shia Islam. While Khomeini's regime fundamentally transformed Iran and reshaped its foreign policy, his ambitions extended beyond the borders of his country. One of the more contentious elements of Khomeini's vision was his desire to assert influence over the Muslim holy cities of Makkah and Madinah, located in Saudi Arabia. This ambition to dominate the two sacred cities has been a subject of significant debate among political analysts, religious scholars, and historians.

The Role of Makkah and Madinah in Islamic Thought

Makkah and Madinah are among the most important cities in the Islamic world. Makkah is home to the Kaaba, the holiest site in Islam, located within the Masjid al-Haram mosque. It is the direction toward which Muslims face during their daily prayers and the destination of the Hajj pilgrimage, which is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Madinah, the second holiest city, houses the mosque of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Masjid al-Nabawi, and is where the Prophet is buried. As such, both cities are central to Islamic worship, theology, and identity.

While the Saudi royal family governs the cities, they hold a significant position within the Sunni sect of Islam. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia controls the cities as custodians of the two holy mosques, a title they claim through their royal lineage and their deep connection with Sunni religious practices. However, for Khomeini and many within the Shia community, especially those who view the Sunni-Shia schism as not just theological but political, the Saudi monarchy’s control over these cities was seen as problematic.

Khomeini's Vision for Islam

Ayatollah Khomeini’s revolution in Iran was not merely a political shift but an ideological one. His vision of an "Islamic Republic" was based on the concept of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Jurisprudent), a system in which a senior religious figure, in this case, Khomeini himself, held ultimate political authority. Khomeini’s interpretation of Islam rejected secularism and promoted an idealized version of an Islamic government that, he believed, should spread throughout the Muslim world.

From the outset, Khomeini sought to unify the Muslim ummah (community) under the banner of his Islamic Republic. This unification, however, was not based on respect for the diverse traditions within Islam but on the idea of centralizing the Muslim world under his brand of Shia Islamic governance. Khomeini believed that the Shia clerical leadership had a unique role in guiding the Muslim community, and he viewed himself as the natural leader of the Muslim ummah.

His vision included a more prominent role for Shia Islam, which had been marginalized within the Sunni-majority Muslim world, and the establishment of a new Islamic order that would challenge the power structures of Sunni-led countries, including Saudi Arabia. His stance on Makkah and Madinah, as symbols of this broader struggle, can be traced back to his belief that the Saudi monarchy was a tool of Western imperialism and an obstacle to his revolutionary goals.

The Conflict Between Shia and Sunni Islam

The geopolitical and religious tension between Shia and Sunni Islam significantly impacted Khomeini’s views on Makkah and Madinah. For centuries, the divide between these two branches of Islam has shaped political and religious interactions. Khomeini saw the Saudi monarchy’s strong ties to the United States and its influence in the Sunni world as part of a broader conspiracy against the Shia community, which he believed was centered in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

The Saudi monarchy, on the other hand, viewed itself as the guardian of Islam’s holiest sites, with an obligation to protect the integrity and sanctity of Makkah and Madinah. For Khomeini, however, this role was not legitimate because it was rooted in the Saudi monarchy's collaboration with Western powers. Khomeini’s ideology rejected the idea that a Sunni dynasty should control the holy cities, seeing it as a product of Western imperialism that kept the Muslim world divided.

One key aspect of Khomeini’s agenda was his goal of establishing a more significant Shia presence in these sacred cities, which he believed were critical to the future of the Islamic world. In this context, Khomeini sought to undermine Saudi control by positioning his revolution as the legitimate force for a truly Islamic governance system, one that transcended sectarian divides and united Muslims under Shia leadership.

Khomeini’s Attempts to Influence Makkah and Madinah

While Khomeini’s revolution primarily focused on reshaping Iran’s political system, his foreign policy was equally bold. His rhetoric and actions often challenged Saudi Arabia's authority, particularly in relation to the holy cities.

1. The 1979 Iranian Hajj Incident: One of the earliest signs of Khomeini’s ambition to exert influence over Makkah and Madinah occurred during the Hajj pilgrimage in 1979, the year of his revolution. Following his rise to power, Khomeini’s government sent strong political signals by supporting the Iranian pilgrims who staged protests during the Hajj. These protests, largely aimed at the Shah’s regime and its ties to the West, were also a way for Khomeini to highlight his dissatisfaction with Saudi Arabia’s handling of the pilgrimage. In the aftermath of the revolution, Khomeini’s rhetoric began to target the Saudi monarchy, accusing it of being a puppet of the West and failing to protect Islam’s sanctity.

2. Support for the 1987 Makkah Massacre: Tensions between Iran and Saudi Arabia escalated in the years following the revolution. In 1987, a violent confrontation broke out between Iranian pilgrims and Saudi security forces during the Hajj. The incident, which resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Iranian pilgrims, further strained relations between the two nations. Khomeini’s support for the Iranian pilgrims and his denunciation of Saudi Arabia for its handling of the situation contributed to the increasing animosity between the two countries.

3. The Propaganda War: Khomeini also used propaganda to criticize the Saudi regime’s stewardship of the holy cities. His government aimed to portray the Saudis as illegitimate rulers, accusing them of neglecting the true principles of Islam. He called for a reimagining of the Islamic world, one where the leadership of Shia clerics played a more prominent role in guiding the faithful.

Khomeini’s Long-Term Vision

Khomeini’s broader vision for Makkah and Madinah went beyond his criticism of the Saudi monarchy. He sought to position Iran as the political and spiritual leader of the Muslim world. To that end, he encouraged the creation of an Islamic bloc of nations, unified under a vision of Islamic governance based on Shia principles. Khomeini’s rhetoric positioned the Saudis as usurpers of the true Islamic cause, framing them as protectors of corrupt practices rather than defenders of Islam’s most sacred sites.

Moreover, Khomeini’s agenda to dominate Makkah and Madinah was a manifestation of his larger goal to reshape the Muslim world under a new, Islamic political order led by the Shia. His aspirations were not just territorial or political but symbolic, seeking to turn these holy cities into powerful symbols of Shia religious dominance in the Islamic world.

Conclusion

Ayatollah Khomeini’s desire to dominate Makkah and Madinah was not merely about gaining control of sacred religious sites; it was part of a broader ideological struggle. By challenging the Saudi monarchy’s control over the holy cities, Khomeini sought to advance a revolutionary vision of Islam, one that placed Shia clerical leadership at the forefront of global Islam. His rhetoric, actions, and support for Iranian pilgrims were all part of his strategy to undermine Saudi Arabia’s legitimacy and assert Iran’s position as the true leader of the Muslim ummah. This ambition ultimately created significant tension between Iran and Saudi Arabia, tensions that have shaped the geopolitical dynamics of the region for decades.

The Fall of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258: A Controversial Narrative of Shiite Treachery

Introduction

The collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258 marked one of the most significant turning points in Islamic history. This event, culminating in the Mongol sack of Baghdad, has been attributed to various causes, including political fragmentation, administrative inefficiencies, and external invasions. However, a controversial narrative blames the fall on alleged Shiite treachery, a perspective rooted in sectarian biases that continue to resonate in some circles today. This article explores the historical context, events, and implications of this accusation, separating historical fact from sectarian myth.

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Part 1: The Abbasid Caliphate Before the Fall

The Abbasid Caliphate, established in 750 CE, reached its zenith during the "Golden Age of Islam," with Baghdad as a thriving center of culture, science, and commerce. However, by the 13th century, the empire faced significant challenges:

• Political Decentralization: Regional governors and military commanders gained autonomy, weakening central authority.
• Economic Decline: Overextension and the inability to control trade routes diminished the caliphate's wealth.
• Sectarian Divisions: Tensions between Sunni and Shiite factions eroded internal unity.

These vulnerabilities left the Abbasids ill-prepared for the Mongol threat led by Hulagu Khan.

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Part 2: The Role of Shiite Figures in the Fall

One of the most contentious aspects of the fall of Baghdad is the role of Ibn al-Alqami, a Shiite vizier serving under the last Abbasid caliph, Al-Musta'sim. Critics accuse him of:

• Weakening the Caliphate’s Defenses: Allegedly advising the caliph to reduce the size of the army, leaving Baghdad vulnerable.
• Collaborating with the Mongols: Purportedly exchanging secret communications with Hulagu Khan, providing intelligence on Baghdad’s defenses.

Historians debate the validity of these claims. While some Sunni chronicles vilify Ibn al-Alqami as a traitor, others suggest these accusations were later fabrications to scapegoat Shiite Muslims amid broader sectarian conflicts.

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Part 3: The Siege and Sack of Baghdad

The Mongols laid siege to Baghdad in January 1258, and within weeks, the city fell. Key events include:

• Negotiation and Deception: Ibn al-Alqami reportedly encouraged Al-Musta'sim to negotiate with Hulagu, underestimating Mongol ruthlessness.
• Massacre and Destruction: Once inside the city, the Mongols unleashed unparalleled devastation, killing hundreds of thousands and obliterating centuries of cultural and intellectual achievements.
• The Execution of the Caliph: Al-Musta'sim was executed, marking the symbolic end of the Abbasid Caliphate as a political power.

While the Mongols bear direct responsibility for the destruction, the perception of internal betrayal exacerbates the narrative of Shiite treachery.

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Part 4: Contextualizing the Accusations

The claims against Shiite Muslims must be analyzed within the broader context of Sunni-Shiite relations:

• Sectarian Rivalries: By the 13th century, Sunni dominance under the Abbasids marginalized Shiite communities, fostering resentment.
• Historical Bias in Chronicles: Sunni historians, such as Ibn Taymiyyah, shaped the narrative of Shiite betrayal, which some argue reflects sectarian propaganda rather than objective history.
• Alternative Perspectives: Modern historians emphasize systemic issues within the Abbasid administration and the overwhelming strength of the Mongols as the primary causes of the fall.

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Part 5: The Legacy of the Fall

The fall of Baghdad had far-reaching consequences:

• End of the Abbasid Caliphate: Although a symbolic Abbasid presence continued in Cairo under Mamluk patronage, the caliphate's political power was irreversibly diminished.
• Shift in Islamic Power Centers: The destruction of Baghdad paved the way for the rise of other Islamic empires, such as the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals.
• Sectarian Narratives: The accusation of Shiite treachery deepened divisions between Sunni and Shiite Muslims, with echoes of this narrative persisting in modern conflicts.

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Conclusion

The fall of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258 remains a watershed moment in Islamic history, with narratives of Shiite treachery reflecting the complex interplay of historical fact and sectarian bias. While Ibn al-Alqami’s role remains controversial, attributing the caliphate's collapse solely to internal betrayal oversimplifies a multifaceted event. Understanding this history requires moving beyond sectarian blame to appreciate the broader dynamics that shaped the Islamic world in the aftermath of Baghdad’s fall.